“It’s Like All of Campus Life Inside a Little Classroom”: How an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Program Operates within a University Setting by Neal A. Smithwick A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2014 © Neal A. Smithwick 2014 I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. Neal A. Smithwick ii Abstract English for Academic Purposes (EAP) are language programs designed to assist non- native speakers with their academic studies in English. These programs determine entry and exit into various stages of post-secondary education, depending on English language competence. EAP programs developed into a teaching and learning profession connected to the spread of English as a dominant global language. Although EAP did not originate in universities, Canadian universities adopted these programs to attract international students. Over time, EAP has become an integral part of university education in Canada. Given the clear differences in learning objectives, it is uncertain whether or not universities have the ability to incorporate EAP as a profession. The goal of this research is to discover how an EAP program fits within a degree- granting Canadian university institution. A qualitative methodological case study was conducted in the “English for Academic Success” (EFAS) program at Renison University College affiliated with the University of Waterloo. The history of how EAP became a unique teaching occupation is included to help identify the problems associated with the professional status of EAP within the university system. The sociological literature on “professions” helps deepen an understanding of the challenges EAP educators face in being recognized as professionals, especially within a university environment. With an empirical understanding of the status of EAP in the context of university education, this research contributes to educational theories of professions, work, globalization and the knowledge economy. iii Acknowledgements There are many people to thank for their support and contributions throughout my Ph.D. program and the writing of this dissertation. Above all, I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to my academic supervisor, Dr. Alicja Muszynski, whose support, advice, encouragement and critical feedback have been invaluable throughout my time at the University of Waterloo. Her efforts to help me went far beyond expectation and I have benefitted immeasurably from working under the supervision of someone who is an outstanding academic mentor. I am also deeply appreciative of the dedication that my academic committee members, Dr. Janice Aurini and Dr. Barry McClinchey, put into my work. I am lucky to have worked with such a cohesive and helpful committee. I would also like to thank my external examiners Dr. Heather Mair and Dr. Tracey Adams. Their comments and contributions have undoubtedly strengthened my dissertation. Although they were not involved in my academic endeavours, I could never have accomplished any of my academic goals without the love, support and inspiration from my parents, Anna and Peter Smithwick. If I had pursued any other community to investigate, then my work would have been dedicated to them. Many others in the Waterloo community also contributed to the successful completion of my dissertation. I would like to acknowledge the work of Ilona Kosa, Luanne McGinley and Ceylan Turkeri who not only helped me wade through the bureaucratic hurdles of the Ph.D. program but also provided moral support and friendship. Thank you to Dr. Lorne Dawson for entrusting me to instruct several courses in the Department of Sociology. I have also never forgotten the essential learning impact that Dr. Sylvia M. Hale and Dr. Paul Olson have had in leading me down my chosen career path. I would also like to express gratitude to the incredible community of instructors, administrators and staff who are involved in the English Language Institute at Renison University College. Louann Nhan, Andrea Brandt, Winona Phachanla, Ralon Nazareth, Harikla Zafiris and Brenda Doyle have all contributed greatly to making my life easier and even more enjoyable while working at Renison. I would also like to extend special thanks to Julia Williams and colleagues in the ELS for being such wonderful and supportive colleagues. I consider them dear friends who have my utmost respect and admiration. On a more personal note, I would like to express my appreciation to my fellow doctoral candidates who have both commiserated and celebrated with me throughout my time at Waterloo. Thanks to Eric, Jenny, Carlie, Amelia, Stephen, Mike, Celia, Ben, as well as many more who I have had the pleasure of knowing over the years. I would like to extend many thanks and gratitude to my aunt Rene and Brian Taverner…and my old friends. iv Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to everyone who works in the EFAS program at Renison University College. This research would not have been possible without their cooperation. Above all, I dedicate the many hours of hard work that I put into the entire research and writing process to them because they have continuously displayed tremendous energy and dedication to helping our students. Thank you for creating such an incredibly positive learning environment. It was simply a pleasure working with and knowing each and every one of them. v Table of Contents List of Acronyms............................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. x List of Tables................................................................................................................................... xi 1 Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Historical Background ........................................................................................................ 4 1.2 The Case Study ................................................................................................................... 8 1.3 The Concept of “Professionalism” ..................................................................................... 9 1.4 Perceptions of Professionalism within a University Setting............................................. 13 1.5 Outline of the Research .................................................................................................... 19 2 Chapter Two: The History of EAP .................................................................................. 23 2.1 Defining EAP.................................................................................................................... 23 2.2 The History of English for Academic Purposes ............................................................... 28 2.3 Theoretical Debates over Pedagogy and Curriculum in EAP .......................................... 38 3 Chapter Three: The Sociological Theories of Occupations and Professions ............... 44 3.1 The Division of Labour .................................................................................................... 46 3.2 The Division of Labour According to Political Economy ................................................ 48 3.3 The Application of Manual and Mental Specializations in the Division of Labour......... 51 3.4 The Division of Labour According to Structural Functionalism ...................................... 56 3.5 The Division of Labour According to the Weberian Theory of Rationalization.............. 60 3.6 Distinguishing Types of Work within the Division of Labour ......................................... 62 3.7 The Social Role of Teaching as an Occupation within the Division of Labour ............... 65 3.8 Toward a Sociological Understanding of Professions ...................................................... 70 3.9 The Functionalist Approach to Understanding Professions ............................................. 74 3.10 Critical Approaches to Understanding Professions .......................................................... 79 3.11 The Market Orientation of Professions............................................................................. 82 3.12 Credentialism as a Form of Professional Control of Work .............................................. 84 3.13 Labour Market Implications for Professions in Rationalized Societies ........................... 86 3.14 The Socio-Historical Approach to Understanding Professions ........................................ 89 4 Chapter Four: The Case Study Methodology ................................................................. 93 4.1 The Case Study Setting: The EFAS Program at Renison University College of the University of Waterloo ..................................................................................................... 97 vi 4.2 The Research Design: The People Involved in the EFAS Program and the Data Collection Procedures ..................................................................................................... 101 4.3 In-Depth Interviewing .................................................................................................... 102 4.4 Participant Observation .................................................................................................. 110 4.5 Review of Primary EFAS and UW-Based Reports ........................................................ 115 5 Chapter Five: The Evolution of the EFAS Program and Introducing the Respondents ............................................................................................................ 118 5.1 The Evolution of ESL into the EFAS Program .............................................................. 122 5.2 The Present State of the EFAS Program......................................................................... 127 5.3 EFAS Instructors and Administrators............................................................................. 130 5.4 EFAS Students ................................................................................................................ 145 6 Chapter Six: Perspectives on the Professional Status of the EFAS Program ............ 168 6.1 How Instructors and Administrators Perceive Professions ............................................ 168 6.2 Determining Whether EAP Teaching Is a Profession .................................................... 174 6.3 Barriers to EAP Attaining Professional Status ............................................................... 179 6.4 Operation of the EFAS Program..................................................................................... 183 6.5 Students’ Perceptions of EFAS Instructors .................................................................... 188 6.6 Social Status Experiences of EFAS Instructors and Administrators .............................. 194 6.7 The Influence of Renison University College on EFAS ................................................ 197 6.8 The Influence of the University of Waterloo on EFAS .................................................. 201 6.9 Summary of the Main Themes ....................................................................................... 209 7 Chapter Seven: Analysis of the Research Data............................................................. 211 7.1 Theoretical Contributions to Understanding Professions ............................................... 212 7.1.1 The Public Educational System.............................................................................. 213 7.1.2 The Professionalization of University Teaching .................................................... 220 7.2 Defining EFAS as a Profession ...................................................................................... 227 7.3 Social Status within the Teaching and University Hierarchies ...................................... 233 7.4 English Language Competency at the University of Waterloo ...................................... 238 7.4.1 The University of Waterloo’s Academic Standards............................................... 239 7.4.2 Attempts to Address Student Language Competency............................................ 245 7.4.3 UW’s International Aspirations and English Language Competency ................... 253 8 Chapter Eight: Conclusion .............................................................................................. 259 8.1 Revisiting the Research Questions ................................................................................. 259 8.2 Theoretical Contributions: The Sociology of Professions .............................................. 259 8.3 The Social Status of the EFAS Program within the University of Waterloo ................. 267 vii 8.4 Policy Implications: A Call to Enhance EFAS ............................................................... 271 8.5 Suggestions for Future Research .................................................................................... 275 8.6 Final Comments .............................................................................................................. 279 Appendix A: Renison University College Organizational Hierarchy .......................................... 283 Appendix B: Qualitative Interview Guide for EFAS Students .................................................... 284 Appendix C: Qualitative Interview Guide for Instructors in the EFAS Program ........................ 286 Appendix D: Qualitative Interview Guide for the Administrators of the EFAS Program ........... 288 Appendix E: Qualitative Interview Guide for the Special Advisor to the Vice-President, University of Waterloo Office of the Vice-President, Academic and Provost ............... 291 Appendix F: Chart of Themes from Qualitative Data.................................................................. 293 Appendix G: Recruitment and Information Letter ....................................................................... 296 Appendix H: Recruitment E-mail Message to EFAS Students.................................................... 298 References .................................................................................................................................... 299 viii List of Acronyms ACE-TESOL Advance Consulting in Education-Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language (at Renison University College) BALEAP British Association of Lecturers in English for Academic Purposes BASE Bridge to Academic Success (at Renison University College) BNA British North America Act of 1867 CCLB Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks CIC Citizenship and Immigration Canada EAP English for Academic Purposes EEP English for Economic Purposes EFAS English for Academic Success (at Renison University College) EFP English for Financial Purposes EFL English as a Foreign Language EFS English for Success (at Renison University College) EGP English for General Purposes ELAS English Language for Academic Studies (EAP program at Conestoga College) ELC English Language Centre (operation of non-credit courses in the English Language Institute at Renison University College) ELI English Language Institute (at Renison University College) ELP English for Legal Purposes ELPE English Language Proficiency Exam (at the University of Waterloo) ELS English Language Studies (operation of credit courses in the English Language Institute at Renison University College) ELT English Language Teaching EMP English for Management Purposes EMP English for Medical Purposes EOP English for Occupational Purposes ESL English as a Second Language ESP English for Specific Purposes EST English for Science and Technology EU European Union IELTS International English Language Testing System LINC Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NRS National Recognition Standards (Canada) SELMOUS Special English Language Materials for Overseas University Students (UK) TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language TESL Teaching English as a Second Language TESOL Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UW University of Waterloo WLU Wilfrid Laurier University ix List of Figures Figure 1: Designations in ESP’s Professional Area ....................................................................... 25 Figure 2: Designations for When ESP Takes Place ....................................................................... 25 Figure 3: English for Academic Success (EFAS) Personnel ....................................................... 100 Figure 4: Configuration of the English Language Institute (ELI): Renison University College (Main Campus) ................................................................................................ 121 x