Table of Contents Cover Title Page Contributors Dedication: Jules Janick 1 The Flowers of Fragaria × ananassa I. INTRODUCTION II. STRAWBERRY GROWTH, REPRODUCTION, AND COMMERCIAL MANAGEMENT III. INFLORESCENCE ARCHITECTURE IV. GENETICS OF FLOWER INDUCTION V. CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED 2 Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (sUAS) I. INTRODUCTION II. AIRCRAFT III. SENSORS AND DATA PROCESSING IV. HORTICULTURAL APPLICATIONS V. CHALLENGES VI. CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED 3 Leaf Blackening I. INTRODUCTION II. VARIATION IN EXPRESSION OF LEAF BLACKENING III. PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF LEAF BLACKENING IV. THE BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISMS OF LEAF BLACKENING V. CONTROL OF LEAF BLACKENING VI. CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED 4 Sapota (Manilkara achras Forb.) I. INTRODUCTION II. NUTRITIVE VALUE III. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES DURING FRUIT MATURATION AND RIPENING IV. PREHARVEST EFFECTS ON POSTHARVEST QUALITY V. PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS VI. POSTHARVEST DISEASES VII. POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY VIII. POSTHARVEST TREATMENTS IX. NONDESTRUCTIVE METHODS FOR IDENTIFYING FRUIT MATURITY AND QUALITY X. PROCESSING XI. SUMMARY AND FUTURE PROSPECTS LITERATURE CITED 5 The Citron (Citrus medica L.) in China I. INTRODUCTION II. HISTORY AND CULTURE III. NOMENCLATURE IV. CURRENT CITRON CULTIVATION IN CHINA V. MAJOR CULTIVARS OF CHINESE CITRON AND SELECT CITRON HYBRIDS VI. GERMPLASM STATUS; REGIONAL AND GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE LITERATURE CITED 6 Apple Rootstocks I. INTRODUCTION II. HISTORY III. ROOTSTOCK–SCION INTERACTIONS IV. STRESSES INFLUENCING ROOTSTOCK PERFORMANCE V. INTERSTEMS VI. INFLUENCE OF ROOTSTOCK ON FRUIT CHARACTERISTICS VII. GENETICS AND BREEDING VIII. ROOTSTOCK EVALUATION LITERATURE CITED 7 Canopy Growth and Development Processes in Apples and Grapevines I. INTRODUCTION II. PHENOLOGY III. DORMANT BUDS IN APPLE TREES AND GRAPEVINES IV. WINTER CHILLING IN APPLE TREES AND GRAPEVINES V. BUDBREAK AND SHOOT DEVELOPMENT IN APPLE TREES AND GRAPEVINES VI. FRUIT GROWTH VII. BIOMASS PARTITIONING VIII. PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND THE CARBON ECONOMY IX. ABIOTIC STRESS EFFECTS ON CANOPY PHYSIOLOGY X. IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON PHENOLOGY XI. CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED 8 Organic Acids in Fruits I. INTRODUCTION II. THE FUNCTION OF THE FLESH OF FRUITS AND ITS IMPLICATION FOR THEIR ORGANIC ACID CONTENTS III. ACIDS THAT CONTAIN A BENZENE RING: THE AROMATIC ACIDS IV. THE INTERRELATED ACIDS: ASCORBIC, OXALIC, TARTARIC, AND GALACTURONIC V. FATTY ACIDS VI. MALIC, CITRIC, AND METABOLICALLY RELATED ACIDS VII. CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED Subject Index Cumulative Subject Index Cumulative Contributor Index End User License Agreement List of Tables Chapter 01 Table 1.1. Map positions and genetic effect of QTL detected for the PF (perpetual flowering) and RU (runnering) traits for the female (f) parent ‘Capitola’ and male (m) parent ‘CF1116.’ QTL identification was based on compositeinterval mapping analysis with LOD > LOD threshold (3.1) (α = 0.05). From Gaston et al. 2013; reproduced with permission from Oxford University Press. Chapter 02 Table 2.1. A summary of the types of aircraft used for agriculture, forestry, and horticulture research based on a survey of literature from 2004 to 2016. Table 2.2. A summary of the types of sensors used for agriculture, forestry, and horticulture research using UAS based on a survey of literature from 2004 to 2016. Chapter 04 Table 4.1. Nutritional components of sapota (Manilkara zapota) fruit per 100 g edible portion. Table 4.2. Chemical composition of sapota fruit juice with pH 5.36 and titratable acidity 0.16% (% citric acid). Chapter 07 Table 7.1. Differences in phenology of six Malus domestica cultivars growing in three Chilean locations (after Yuri et al. 2011). Budbreak represents the date of budbreak in days after 1 September, and flowering and harvest are given in days after budbreak. These data are all estimated from the original publication. Chapter 08 Table 8.1. Concentrations of quinic acid (QA; mg g–1 FW) in the flesh of some ripe fruits. Table 8.2. Concentrations of shikimic acid (SA; mg g–1 FW) in the flesh of some ripe fruits. Table 8.3. Concentrations of ascorbic acid (AA; mg g–1 FW) in the flesh of some ripe fruits and in some leaves. Table 8.4. Concentrations of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA; mg g–1 FW) in the flesh of some ripe fruits and some leaves. Table 8.5. Concentrations of tartaric acid (TA: mg∙g–1 FW) in the flesh of some ripe fruits. Table 8.6. Concentrations of total oxalic acid (mg∙g–1 FW) in the flesh of some ripe fruits (based on Nguy n and Savage 2013a). Table 8.7. Concentrations of malic acid (MA; mg g–1 FW) in the flesh of some ripe temperate fruits and some leaves and roots. For leaves and roots, nitrate and ammonium refer to the form of nitrogen on which the plants were grown. Table 8.8. Concentrations of citric acid (CA; mg g–1 FW) in the flesh of some ripe temperate fruits and some leaves. For leaves, nitrate and ammonium refer to the form of nitrogen on which the plants were grown. Table 8.9. Concentrations of malic acid (MA; mg g–1 FW) in the flesh of unripe and ripe fruits. For unripe fruit (except tomato) the maximum content during the period of development studied is given. For tomato, unripe fruit are 28 days after anthesis, and nitrate and ammonium denote the form of nitrogen with which the plant was fertilized. Table 8.10. Concentrations of citric acid (CA; mg g–1 FW) in the flesh of unripe and ripe fruits. For unripe fruit the maximum content during the period of development studied is given. For tomato, unripe fruit are 28 days after anthesis, and nitrate and ammonium denote the form of nitrogen with which the plant was fertilized. List of Illustrations Chapter 01 Fig. 1.1. Leaves and axillary meristems of cultivar ‘Portola.’ Fig. 1.2. (a) Diagram of fully developed flower cluster with (a) primary flower, (b) secondary flower, (c) tertiary flower, and (d) quaternary flower http://www.hort.cornell.edu/grower/nybga/pdfs/2012berryproceedings.pdf (from Poling 2012). (b) Picture of a flower cluster of the cultivar ‘Portola’, with (a) primary flower, (b) secondary flower bud, and (c) tertiary flower bud. Fig. 1.3. (a) Principal flower parts of cultivar ‘EvieII,’ including (a) stamen, (b) pistil, (c) receptacle, (d) petal, and (e) sepal. Photograph taken July 10, 2014 in Minnesota. (b) Crosssection of F. × ananassa showing (a) pistil and (b) receptacle. Fig. 1.4. (a) Profile of mature fruit of the cultivar ‘Amandine,’ with embedded achenes. (b) Crosssection of an ‘Amandine’ fruit, with (a) interior receptacle, (b) fibrovascular tube and (c) calyx. Fig. 1.5. Average daylengths of Minneapolis, MN and Santa Maria, CA, taken on the 20th of each month. Raw data acquired from Time & Date AS: http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/astronomy.html? n=3857&month=12&year=2014&obj=sun&afl=1&day=1. Fig. 1.6. Average high temperatures in Minneapolis, MN and Santa Maria, CA, taken on the 20th of each month. Raw data acquired from Intellicast: http://www.intellicast.com/. Fig. 1.7. Diagram of the mattedrow system common to Junebearing cultivars. Fig. 1.8. Dayneutral ‘Monterey’ runner, with developed inflorescence. Fig. 1.9. (a) Diagram of a single, typical strawberry inflorescence, and (b) model of ‘Seascape,’ where 1°, 2°, and 3° represent primary, secondary, and tertiary inflorescences, which developed from buds after initial planting. Fig. 1.10. Photograph of ‘Portola’ inflorescence. 1°, 2°, and 3° represent primary, secondary, and tertiary flowers. Labeled brackets indicate primary (I) and secondary (II) internodes. Fig. 1.11. Selected flower clusters of (a) ‘Annapolis,’ (b) ‘Albion,’ (c) ‘Evie2,’ (d) ‘Monterey,’ (e) ‘Portola,’ (f) ‘San Andreas,’ and (g, h) ‘Seascape.’ Fig. 1.12. Fragaria vesca shoot and flower development. (a) F. vesca YW5AF7 grown in a 10.2cm pot; (b) YW5AF7 dichasial cyme bearing yellow berries; (c) Inflorescence with primary flower (1) and two developing secondary flowers (2). Young tertiary buds (arrows) are present beneath the secondary flower buds; (d) Diagram of shoot architecture. Numbers indicate primary, secondary, and tertiary flower buds; (e) Diagram illustrating floral organ arrangement. The two outer whorls are concentric rings of five bracts (b) alternating with five sepals (s). The third whorl consists of five white petals (p). Interior to the petals are two whorls of stamens. Stamens are arranged in a repeating pattern of five tall (T) and five short (S) in the inner whorl and 10 medium length (M) in the outer whorl. The center circle indicates a receptacle topped with numerous, spirally arranged carpels; (f) Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of a developing floral bud, illustrating spirally arranged carpel primordial; (g) Abaxial view of a typical F. vesca flower with five narrow bracts (b) alternating with five wider sepals (s); (h) Adaxial view of typical F. vesca flower illustrating a whorl of five white petals, two whorls of ten stamens each, and an apocarpous gynoecium with ~160 pistils. (i) Dissected flower illustrating the “S, M, T, M, S” stamen pattern. Scale bars: (a) 2 cm; (g–i) 1 mm. Fig. 1.13. Silencing of FvTFL1 leads to daylengthindependent flowering. (a) Phenotypes of FvTFL1 RNAi silencing and overexpression lines in the shortday (SD) F. vesca background. Clonally propagated plants (runner cuttings) of SD F. vesca and P35S:FvTFL1RNAi1 and P35S:FvTFL11 lines were subjected to SD induction treatment for four weeks followed by longdays (LDs; left), or grown continuously under LDs (right); (b), Flowering time of SD F. vesca and P35S:FvTFL1RNAi and P35S:FvTFL1 plants (RNAi and OX, respectively) in SDs and LDs. Flowering time is indicated as days to anthesis from the beginning of the treatments. Treatments and plant materials were as described in (a). Values indicate mean ± SD. n = 4 (OX1), n = 5 (RNAi2), n = 6 (RNAi1 and OX2), and n = 7 (SD F. vesca); (c,d) Expression of FvTFL1 (c) and FvAP1 (d) in the apices of two independent P35S:FvTFL1RNAi (RNAi) lines. Values indicate mean ± SD. n = 3 (RNAi1 and SD F. vesca) or n = 2 (RNAi2). Fig. 1.14. Frequency distribution of number of weeks flowering at Maryland (MD) (a) and California (CA) (b). The phenotypic values of the parents, ‘Tribute’ and ‘Honeoye’ are indicated by arrows (Castro et al. 2015). Fig. 1.15. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) for number of weeks of flowering detected in the octoploid strawberry (F. × ananassa Duchesne ex. Rozier) population ‘Tribute’ × ‘Honeoye’ evaluated in Maryland (dotted line) and California (solid line) using interval mapping (IM) (Castro et al. 2015). Chapter 02 Fig. 2.1. Google Scholar search for “UAV aircraft” and the resulting number of articles (does not include patents or citations) annually from 1990 to 2015. Chapter 03 Plate 3.1. The various positions where leaf blackening development can first manifest in Protea ‘Sylvia’ (P. eximia × P. susannae). (a) Leaftip; (b) Leafbase; (c) Mid rib; (d) Lateral leaf margins (Windell 2012) Plate 3.2. Grading scales to visually assess the impact of leaf blackening as a quality attribute in Protea (Ekman et al. 2008). Less than 10% leaf blackening is not considered greatly noticeable, whereas greater than 50% appears fully blackened Plate 3.3. The maturity stages of a Protea ‘Sylvia’ inflorescence showing (a) a more immature, but harvestready softtip stage where involucral bracts are just starting to retract from the center and the florets, and (b) a more mature and fully opened inflorescence, but not yet senesced (Windell 2012) Plate 3.4. Protea ‘Sylvia’ displaying leaf blackening and phytotoxic symptoms in the leaves (a) and after storage at the tips in the involucral bracts of the inflorescence (b) (Windell 2012) Chapter 04 Plate 4.1. Sapota tree Plate 4.2. External and internal images of round and elongated sapota fruit Chapter 05 Plate 5.1. Sculpture of fingered citron carved in carnelian in 18th century China. Fig. 5.1. (a) Map of Citron cultivation in China. Plate 5.2. Dried ‘Chuan’ fingered citrons, for use in Chinese traditional medicine, in Xiaogu, Sichuan. Plate 5.3. Drying fingered citron slices for Chinese traditional medicine near Huaning, Yunnan. Plate 5.4. Bonsai fingered citron plants in pots for sale at a street market along a road in Jinhua, Zhejiang. Plate 5.5. In Jinhua, fingered citron growers use trellises, stakes, and ties to ensure that the limbs and fruit maintain an attractive upright growing habit. Plate 5.6. Mr. PeiYong Zhang eats a slice of common citron at his home in Dehong Prefecture, Yunnan. Plate 5.7. ‘Dog Head’ citron in Mojiang, Yunnan. Plate 5.8. ‘Jianshui Round’ citron, Bai Shi Yan village, Xizhuang township, Jianshui County, Yunnan. Plate 5.9. ‘Jinggu’ citron, Jinggu Dai and Yi Autonomous County, Yunnan. Plate 5.10. ‘Jinghong Water’ citron, Jinghong, Yunnan, with large central cavity and small locules with numerous seeds and scanty juice vesicles. Plate 5.11. ‘Ning’er Giant’ citron weighing ca. 8 kg, held by the farmer, Li Hua Zhong, near Ning’er, Yunnan. Plate 5.12. ‘Persistent Stigma’ citron, Huaning, Yunnan. Plate 5.13. ‘Pumpkin’ citron in Xiaowan, Fengqing County, Yunnan. Plate 5.14. ‘Weishan Bullet’ citron near Weishan, Yunnan. Plate 5.15. ‘Weishan Sour’ citron near Weishan, Yunnan, China. Plate 5.16. ‘Weishan Sweet’ citron, Tuanshan village, Nanzhao township, near Weishan, Yunnan. Plate 5.17. ‘Yun’ fingered citron, showing how one fruit actually has some juice vesicles. Plate 5.18. ‘Aihua’ fingered citrons. Plate 5.19. ‘Chuan’ fingered citrons with typical closed fingers, Shuangshi village, Xinfan township, Muchuan County, Sichuan. Plate 5.20. ‘Guang’ fingered citron in Guangdong. Plate 5.21. Typical specimens of ‘Octopus’ fingered citron grown near Weishan, Yunnan. Plate 5.22. ‘Qingpi’ fingered citron plants in bonsai cultivation in Jinhua, Zhejiang. Plate 5.23. ‘Yun’ fingered citrons sold at a produce stand at the airport in Kunming, Yunnan. Plate 5.24. ‘Zhaocai’ fingered citron, Jinhua, Zhejiang. Plate 5.25. ‘Half and Half’ fingered citron at a market in Jinghong, Yunnan. Plate 5.26. ‘Muli’ citron in Baidiao, east of Muli, Sichuan. Plate 5.27. Characteristic form of ‘Muli’ citron, Muli, Sichuan. Plate 5.28. Wild citron, type 1 (with thin rind, segments and juice vesicles), from a wild forest in a valley in the mountains 2 km west of Hexinchang village, Mangshi township, Luxi City, Yunnan. Elevation: 1190 m. Plate 5.29. Wild citron, type 1, growing wild in Mangshi township, Yunnan. Top: view of the valley where wild citron grows as an understory plant. Bottom: trees of wild citron, type 1. Plate 5.30. Wild citron, type 2 (with thick albedo, no segments or juice vesicles). Plate 5.31. ‘Goucheng’ citron hybrid, Binchuan, Yunnan. Plate 5.32. ‘Yunmao Oval’ citron hybrid near Mengwan village, Dehong prefecture, Yunnan. Chapter 07 Fig. 7.1. The process of budbreak in ‘Royal Gala’ and MM.111 apple trees.In the case of ‘Royal Gala’, days of treatment were days after 1 September and for MM.111, the days of treatment were days of forcing at 20 °C. Fig. 7.2. Rates of budbreak of ‘Delicious’ apple trees as a function of temperature. Fig. 7.3. The impact of postharvest day/night temperatures on the budbreak of potted ‘Braeburn’ apple trees in the subsequent spring. Fig. 7.4. Leaf appearance in days after budbreak of ‘Semillon’ grapevines, with and without a fruit crop load, as a function of node position along the shoot and separated into three zones. Zone 1 represents the initial cluster of leaves that appear very rapidly from preformed primordia. Zone 2 are the leaves also from preformed primordia but which appear in a linear sequence. Zone 3 leaves all originate from neoformed primordia formed by activity of the shoot apical meristem. Fig. 7.5. Rates of shoot extension for a number of grapevine cultivars shown as a function of temperature. The potted vines were grown in controlled conditions for 13 weeks from budbreak. Fig. 7.6. Expansion of selected leaves of ‘Semillon’ grapevine across the growing season with a fit of the Boltzmann sigmoid function to each. Fig. 7.7. Rates of dry weight accumulation of berries of three grapevine cultivars as shown as a function of temperature for vines grown in controlled environments. Fig. 7.8. Net photosynthesis of leaves along the shoot on a vineyardgrown ‘Semillon’ vine at different times of the growing season (DAB = days after bloom) as indicated (D.H. Greer unpublished data). Fig. 7.9. Seasonal changes in (a) rates of the net carbon acquisition (NCA), (b) the rate of carbon accumulated into biomass (CAB), and (c) net daily carbon balance (NCB) for ‘Semillon’ vines growing in outdoor conditions. Fig. 7.10. The photosynthetic light response for ‘Red Gala’ trees at a range of leaf temperatures as shown and grown in Australian conditions. The response at 20 °C was similar to that at 30 °C, and so has been excluded for clarity. The lines are a fit to the hyperbolic tangent function (see Greer and Halligan 2001). Fig. 7.11. Seasonal changes in leaf photosynthesis of ‘Braeburn’ apple trees grown in New Zealand orchard conditions. Note the marked decrease in photosynthesis after harvest had occurred. Leaf temperatures were between 26 and 28.5 °C throughout these measurements. Fig. 7.12. The effect of an 8day heat stress event on photosynthesis of ‘Red Gala’ trees before, during, and after the hightemperature period, as indicated.