O X F O R D I B D I P L O M A P R O G R A M M E 2ND EDITION GEO GR A P H Y COURSE COMPANION Garrett Nagle Briony Cooke 3 Getty Images; p511: Lazyllama/Shutterstock; p515: Scott E Barbour/The Image Bank/Getty Images; p547: Dpa picture alliance/Alamy Stock Photo; p568: Sergio Pitamitz/robertharding/Getty Images; p578: Aldo Pavan/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Images; p580: Joerg Boethling/Alamy Stock Photo; p581: Stringer/Bangladesh/ Reuters/Alamy Stock Photo; p590b: Asia Photopress/Alamy Stock Photo; p593m: Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers SFL Choice/Alamy Stock Photo; p593b: Flueeler Urs/Alamy Stock Photo; p594tl: the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education Flueeler Urs/Alamy Stock Photo; p594tr: Tibor Bognar/Alamy Stock Photo; p594m: by publishing worldwide. 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You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this Focus Geography: Hazards by G Nagle, (Nelson Thornes, 1998), copyright © same condition on any acquirer Garrett Nagle 1998, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data ‘New Orleans Area Map: New Orleans Levee System’ by Alexdi from English Data available Wikipedia, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:New_Orleans_Elevations. 978-0-19-839603-1 jpg#le, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Licence. 1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 Hoekstra, AY and Mekonnen, MM. 2012. ‘The Water Footprint of Humanity’ in Paper used in the production of this book is a natural, recyclable product made Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 109, number 9, pp. 3232–3237, http:// from wood grown in sustainable forests. 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Alamy Stock Photo; p500: Melvyn Longhurst/Alamy Stock Photo; p502: Bloomberg/ Continued on last page. Course Companion denition The IB Diploma Programme Course Companions are resource materials designed to support students throughout their two-year Diploma Programme course of study in a particular subject. They will help students gain an understanding of what is expected from the study of an IB Diploma Programme subject while presenting content in a way that illustrates the purpose and aims of the IB. They reect the philosophy and approach of the IB and encourage a deep understanding of each subject by making connections to wider issues and providing opportunities for critical thinking. The books mirror the IB philosophy of viewing the curriculum in terms of a whole-course approach; the use of a wide range of resources, international mindedness, the IB learner prole and the IB Diploma Programme core requirements, theory of knowledge, the extended essay, and creativity, activity, service (CAS). Each book can be used in conjunction with other materials and indeed, students of the IB are required and encouraged to draw conclusions from a variety of resources. Suggestions for additional and further reading are given in each book and suggestions for how to extend research are provided. In addition, the Course Companions provide advice and guidance on the specic course assessment requirements and on academic honesty protocol. They are distinctive and authoritative without being prescriptive. IB mission statement The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect. To this end the IB works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment. These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate, and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right. iii The IB learner Prole The aim of all IB programmes is to develop internationally minded people who, recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful world. IB learners strive to be: Inquirers They develop their natural curiosity. They acquire the skills necessary to conduct inquiry and research and show independence in learning. They actively enjoy learning and this love of learning will be sustained throughout their lives. Knowledgable They explore concepts, ideas, and issues that have local and global signicance. In so doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and develop understanding across a broad and balanced range of disciplines. Thinkers They exercise initiative in applying thinking skills critically and creatively to recognize and approach complex problems, and make reasoned, ethical decisions. Communicators They understand and express ideas and information condently and creatively in more than one language and in a variety of modes of communication. They work effectively and willingly in collaboration with others. Principled They act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness, justice, and respect for the dignity of the individual, groups, and communities. They take responsibility for their own actions and the consequences that accompany them. Open-minded They understand and appreciate their own cultures and personal histories, and are open to the perspectives, values, and traditions of other individuals and communities. They are accustomed to seeking and evaluating a range of points of view, and are willing to grow from the experience. Caring They show empathy, compassion, and respect towards the needs and feelings of others. They have a personal commitment to service, and act to make a positive difference to the lives of others and to the environment. Risk-takers They approach unfamiliar situations and uncertainty with courage and forethought, and have the independence of spirit to explore new roles, ideas, and strategies. They are brave and articulate in defending their beliefs. Balanced They understand the importance of intellectual, physical, and emotional balance to achieve personal well-being for themselves and others. Reective They give thoughtful consideration to their own learning and experience. They are able to assess and understand their strengths and limitations in order to support their learning and personal development. iv A note on academic honesty What constitutes misconduct? It is of vital importance to acknowledge and Misconduct is behaviour that results in, or may appropriately credit the owners of information result in, you or any student gaining an unfair when that information is used in your work. advantage in one or more assessment component. After all, owners of ideas (intellectual property) Misconduct includes plagiarism and collusion. have property rights. To have an authentic piece Plagiarism is dened as the representation of the of work, it must be based on your individual ideas or work of another person as your own. The and original ideas with the work of others fully following are some of the ways to avoid plagiarism: acknowledged. Therefore, all assignments, written or oral, completed for assessment must use your ● Words and ideas of another person used to own language and expression. Where sources are support one’s arguments must be acknowledged. used or referred to, whether in the form of direct Passages that are quoted verbatim must ● quotation or paraphrase, such sources must be be enclosed within quotation marks and appropriately acknowledged. acknowledged. How do I acknowledge the work of others? ● CD-ROMs, email messages, web sites on the Internet, and any other electronic media must be The way that you acknowledge that you have used treated in the same way as books and journals. the ideas of other people is through the use of The sources of all photographs, maps, footnotes and bibliographies. ● illustrations, computer programs, data, graphs, Footnotes (placed at the bottom of a page) or audio-visual, and similar material must be endnotes (placed at the end of a document) are acknowledged if they are not your own work. to be provided when you quote or paraphrase Works of art, whether music, lm, dance, from another document, or closely summarize the ● theatre arts, or visual arts, and where the information provided in another document. You do creative use of a part of a work takes place, not need to provide a footnote for information that must be acknowledged. is part of a ‘body of knowledge’. That is, denitions do not need to be footnoted as they are part of the Collusion is dened as supporting misconduct by assumed knowledge. another student. This includes: Bibliographies should include a formal list of allowing your work to be copied or submitted ● the resources that you used in your work. The for assessment by another student listing should include all resources, including duplicating work for different assessment ● books, magazines, newspaper articles, Internet- components and/or diploma requirements. based resources, CDs and works of art. ‘Formal’ means that you should use one of the several Other forms of misconduct include any action accepted forms of presentation. You must provide that gives you an unfair advantage or affects the full information as to how a reader or viewer results of another student. Examples include, of your work can nd the same information. taking unauthorized material into an examination A bibliography is compulsory in the extended essay. room, misconduct during an examination, and falsifying a CAS record. v The location of case studies Option A to G 17 42 7 5 38 35 16 34 21 12 45 36 54 4 64 11 15 1957 63 51 26 928 59 23453813 24 24228 150 205861 305618825 533633 55562 44 60 31 29 39 49 14 37 40 27 47 52 Option A – Freshwater – Drainage basins Option D – Geophysical hazards Option F – The geography of food and 1 Egypt – Aswan Dam 27 Christchurch earthquake, 2010, health 2 Nile Basin 2012 45 HALE in Canada 3 China – water diversion 28 Soufrière Hills, volcano, Montsalvat 46 Epidemiological transition in USA, 4 Europe – river regimes 29 Mt. Sinabung volcano, Indonesia China and Afghanistan 30 Urban Landslides, Kalimpong, 47 Food consumption in Cape Town Option B – Oceans and coastal margins West Bengal India 48 Food consumption in the Middle 5 Philippines – Typhoon Haiyan 31 Landslides in Sri Lanka, 2016 East 6 South China sea – geopolitics 32 Reconstructing Haiti 49 Changing dietary patterns in Brazil 7 Arctic – geopolitics 50 Famine in Ethiopia 8 Bangladesh – flow mitigation Option E – Leisure, tourism and sport 9 St Lucia – coastal management 33 China’s theme park Option G – Urban environments 10 USA – floods 34 Participation in sport in UK 51 Land-use in New York 11 USA – oceanside littoral cell 35 Oxford – tourism hotspot 52 Gentrication and relocation in 36 Killarney National Park Cape Town, South Africa Option C – Extreme environments 37 National sports league in 53 Changing urban environment – 12 Switzerland – Gorner Glacier South Africa Shanghai 13 Sahara – climate changes 38 Glastonbury festival 54 Urban decline in Detroit 14 Eastern Cape, South Africa – 39 Machu Picchu – heritage tourism 55 Urban microclimate, Seoul, farming in semi-arid areas 40 Tourism as a national development South Korea 15 Rosemont Copper, Arizona, USA strategy – South Africa 56 Air pollution in Delhi, India 16 Alaska National Wildlife Refuge 41 Tourism in the Maldives 57 Managing air pollution in 17 Greenland – resource nationalism 42 London Olympic Games Mexico City 18 Nepal – Tourism 43 Venice – urban tourism hotspot 58 Urban crime, Iran and Nigeria 19 New Mexico, USA – tourism 44 Monteverde cloud forest, 59 Urban deprivation and regeneration 20 Middle East – resource security Costa Rica in Barcelona 21 Yamal Peninsula, Russia – 60 Protecting Lagos oil megaproject 61 Masdar City 22 Sustainable farming in Egypt 62 Tokyo’s ecological footprint 23 Sahara – solar energy 63 Environmental measures in 24 Sahel – coping in semi-arid areas Chicago 25 Nepal landslides, 2015 64 Songdo International Business 26 Haiti earthquake, 2010 District, South Korea vi Unit 1 to 6 11 36 7 14 25 40 39 37 5 25 2713 17 12 4 19 3221 1 6 25 23 24 26 35 3 8 38 18 34 15 9 10 22 33 28 16 35 31 42 30 29 2 20 Unit 1 – Changing population Unit 3 – Global resource consumption Unit 6 – Global risks and resilience 1 Population distribution in China and security 39 Tax avoidance – Apple in Ireland 2 Population distribution in 18 Economic growth in Vietnam 40 Acid rain in Eastern Canada South Africa 19 Food, water and energy security in 41 Maquiladora developments in 3 Megacity growth – Mumbai Hindu Kush Mexico 4 Forced migration from Syria 20 Improving food security in 42 Water problems and flower farming 5 Japan’s ageing population South Africa in Kenya 6 China’s one-child policy 7 Pro-natalist policies in Russia Unit 4 – Power, places and networks 8 Literacy and gender in Kerala 21 China – a rising superpower 9 Trafcking of Nigerian women to 22 Aid and Bangladesh Europe 23 The Tata Group 10 Ethiopia and the demographic 24 The Apple Group dividend 25 NAFTA 26 Incheon, South Korea Unit 2 – Global climate – vulnerability 27 Migration control in the USA and resilience 11 Negative feedback in Greenland Unit 5 – Human development and 12 The retreat of Swiss glaciers Diversity 13 The destruction of forests in the 28 Empowering women in Colombia USA 29 Mapajo Lodge, Bolivia 14 Climate change and the UK 30 Fair trade pineapples in Ghana 15 Flooding in Bangladesh 31 The Rana Plaza disaster, 16 Vulnerability and adaptation in Bangladesh Ghana 32 Cultural change in Tibet 17 Corporate change mitigation in the 33 Cultural change in the Andaman USA Islands 34 Cultural diusion in Seoul, South Korea 35 Shell and Ogoniland, Nigeria 36 Denmark’s immigration laws 37 The “Jungle” in Calais, France 38 Political change in Myanmar vii Contents Unit 1 Changing population Option A Freshwater – Drainage basins 1. Population and economic development patterns 388 1. Drainage basin hydrology and geomorphology 2 2. Changing populations and places 396 2. Flooding and ood mitigation 16 3. Challenges and opportunities 409 3. Water scarcity and water quality 28 Unit 2 Global climate – vulnerability 4. Water management futures 39 and resilience Option B Oceans and coastal margins 1. The causes of global climate change 426 1. Ocean–atmosphere interactions 52 2. The consequences of global climate change 436 2. Interactions between oceans and the 3. Responding to climate change 451 coastal places 65 3. Managing coastal margins 79 Unit 3 Global resource consumption 4. Ocean management futures 91 and security Option C Extreme environments 1. Global trends in consumption 469 1. The characteristics of extreme 2. Impacts of changing trends in resource environments 107 consumption 487 2. Physical processes and landscapes 116 3. Resource stewardship 504 3. Managing extreme environments 128 Unit 4 Power, places and networks 4. Extreme environments’ futures 143 1. Global interactions and global power 516 Option D Geophysical hazards 2. Global networks and ows 530 1. Geophysical systems 164 3. Human and physical inuences on 2. Geophysical hazard risks 176 global interactions 552 3. Hazard risk and vulnerability 186 Unit 5 Human development and diversity 4. Future resilience and adaptation 196 1. Development opportunities 569 Option E Leisure, tourism and sport 2. Changing identities and cultures 583 1. Changing leisure patterns 213 3. Local responses to global interactions 598 2. Tourism and sport at the local and Unit 6 Global risks and resilience national scale 225 3. Tourism and sport at the international 1. Geopolitical and economic risks 615 scale 237 2. Environmental risks 627 4. Managing tourism and sport for the 3. Local and global resilience 639 future 252 Index 648 Option F The geography of food and health Preparing for the exam 1. Measuring food and health 266 2. Food systems and the spread of disease 285 1. Essay writing guidelines 3. Stakeholders in food and health 304 2. Internal assessment 4. Future health and food security and 3. Map skills sustainability 320 4. Glossary of key terms Option G Urban environments 5. Answers, sample exam papers and mark schemes Available on: www.oxfordsecondary. 1. The variety of urban environments 331 co.uk/9780198396031 2. Changing urban systems 349 3. Urban environmental and social stresses 360 Additional case studies are available wherever you 4. Building sustainable urban systems for the see this icon: future 374 viii O P T I O N A FRESHWATER – DRAINAGE BASINS Key terms This optionl theme encompsses the physicl geogrphy of freshwter in  systems Daae The area drained by a river and its frmework, including core elements of as tributaries. hydrology (nd the fctors nd processes tht Feshwate Freshwater includes rivers, lakes, give rise to bnkfull dischrge nd ooding) wetlands, groundwater, glaciers nd uvil geomorphology (including river and ice caps. process nd lndform study). Hdca A conceptual model that describes It lso covers the study of wter on the cce the storage and movement of lnd s  scrce resource requiring creful water between the biosphere, mngement, including freshwter bodies atmosphere, lithosphere and the such s lkes nd quifers. This includes hydrosphere. the wys in which humns respond to the chllenges of mnging the quntity Wateshed Also known as the drainage divide, nd qulity of freshwter, s well s this is the imaginary line dening the consequences (whether intended the boundary of a river or stream or unintended, positive or negtive) of drainage basin separating it from mngement within dringe bsins. the adjacent basin(s). The importnce of integrted plnning is Dschae The volume of water passing a emphsised, in ddition to the geopoliticl given point over a set time. consequences of growing pressures on Phsca Lack of available water where interntionlly shred wter resources. wate water resource development is Through study of this optionl theme, scact approaching or has exceeded students will develop their understnding of unsustainable levels; it relates processes, plces, power nd geogrphicl availability to demand and implies possibilities. They will lso gin understnding that arid areas are not necessarily of other concepts including systems (the water scarce. hydrologicl cycle), ood mitigtion (ttempts Ecc Lack of water where water is to tckle ooding) nd wter security. wate available locally, but not accessible scact for human, institutional or nancial capital reasons. Key questions St A graph showing how a river 1. How do physicl processes inuence hdaph changes over a short period, such dringe bsin systems nd lndforms? as a day or a couple of days. 2. How do physicl nd humn fctors Fd A discharge great enough to both increse (excerbte) nd reduce cause a body of water to overow (mitigte) ood risk for different places? its channel and submerge 3. Wht re the vrying powers of surrounding land. different stkeholders in reltion to wter mngement issues? 4. Wht re the future possibilities for mngement intervention in dringe bsins? 1 1 Drainage basin hydrology and geomorphology The drainage basin as an Conceptual understanding open system Ke est A drainage basin is n re within How do physicl processes inuence dringe bsin systems which wter supplied by precipittion is nd lndforms? trnsferred to the ocen,  lke or lrger strem. It includes ll of the re tht Ke ctet is drined by  river nd its tributries. The dringe bsin s n open system, with inputs Dringe bsins re divided by wtersheds ● (precipittion of vrying type nd intensity), outputs (lso known s dringe divides) – (evportion nd trnspirtion), ows (inltrtion, imginry lines seprting djcent bsins throughow, overlnd ow nd bse ow) nd stores (Figure A.1). The wtershed is rther like (including vegettion, soil, quifers nd the cryosphere). the top of  sloping roof, dividing wter into one gutter or nother. River dischrge nd its reltionship to strem ow (velocity) ● nd chnnel shpe/hydrulic rdius. Some dringe bsins re extremely lrge. Figure A.2 shows the mjor dringe bsins River processes of erosion, trnsporttion nd deposition, ● for Afric. In contrst, very smll dringe nd sptil nd temporl fctors tht inuence their bsins occur in smll strems ner the opertion, including chnnel chrcteristics nd sesonlity. source of  river. Figure A.3 shows some The formtion of typicl river lndforms including dringe bsins nd wtersheds for strems ● wterflls, oodplins, menders, levees nd delts. in the Arthur’s Pss region of New Zelnd. Some rivers drin into the se – the Nile is  good exmple. Others do not rech the se but drin into n inlnd depression for exmple. These dringe bsins re clled endorheic or closed drainage basins. The Okvngo dringe bsin on Figure A.2 is n exmple of n endorheic bsin. MediterraneanSea d he ers at W Tropic of Cancer A Watershed Key Roof Niger Nile Drainage basin A Gutter Drainage basin B Congo-Zaire Equator The watershed is like the top of a Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean roof – water that falls on one side of the roof ows in one direction, into one set of gutters and drains Zambezi (the drainage basin, its rivers Inland drainage B and streams). On the other House Watersheds Tropic of Capricorn side of the watershed (which is A Sahara Desert Orange normally high ground), the water 500 1,000 B Kalahari Desert km drains in a dierent direction. Fe A.1: Drainage basins and watershed Fe A.2: Major drainage basins in Africa 2