FEMININE VOICE AND SPACE IN EARLY MODERN IBERIAN CONVENT THEATER By Anna-Lisa Halling Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSPHY in Spanish December, 2012 Nashville, Tennessee   Approved: Professor Edward H. Friedman Professor Victoria A. Burrus Professor Earl E. Fitz Professor Jane G. Landers Copyright © 2012 by Anna-Lisa Halling All Rights Reserved ii To Logan, who always came first, and to Juan Carlos, who was always there. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS     This work would not have been possible without the financial support of Vanderbilt University’s Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities. My time spent there as the Joe and Mary Harper Fellow was both productive and pleasant. I am also grateful for numerous Travel Awards and for the Dissertation Enhancement Grant, both awarded by Vanderbilt University’s Graduate School, which allowed me to meet scholars in my field, improve my work, and to visit Iberian convents in person. I also owe a great debt of gratitude to Vanderbilt’s Department of Spanish and Portuguese, as well as to the members of my dissertation committee. Dr. Earl Fitz’s wisdom and encouragement, Dr. Jane Landers’s unique insight, and Dr. Victoria Burrus’s probing questions bettered this project and set the stage for future endeavors. I am especially thankful to my committee chair, Dr. Edward Friedman, whom I greatly admire, both as a person and a scholar, and hope to emulate. I could not have asked for a better advisor, and his patience and support throughout the years have been invaluable. Additionally, the support of my friends and colleagues at Vanderbilt and elsewhere means more to me than they could ever know. Finally, I would like to thank the members of my family for their continued love and support. I am indebted to my parents for encouraging and even indulging my love of reading. I am grateful that my devoted and patient husband stood by me as I completed coursework, took exams, and wrote my dissertation. His encouragement lifted my spirit even on the dark days. Most of all, I am thankful to be the mother of a curious, spirited, and sweet little boy, who constantly reminds me of what is truly important in life. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1 Chapter I. SKIRTS AND SWORDS: THE NEW MUJER VARONIL IN SOR MARCELA DE SAN FÉLIX .................................................................................................................27 II. SISTERS-IN-ARMS AND LETTERS: CECILIA DEL NACIMIENTO AND MARÍA DE SAN ALBERTO ...........................................................................................72 III. A ROSE BY ANY OTHER NAME: MARIA DO CEO’S VIRGIN MARY AND THE MALE GAZE ................................................................................................103 IV. PLAYING THE PART: SOR VIOLANTE DO CEO’S VILLANCICOS .................146 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................179 WORKS CITED ..............................................................................................................195 v INTRODUCTION “A whole history remains to be written of spaces.” Michel Foucault During the early modern period in both Spain and Portugal, convents dotted the peninsula, indicative of the fact that “the monastic experience . . . was an integral part of the rich and diverse fabric of Catholic life” (van Whye 1). Unfortunately, many of these convents have not survived and their records have vanished along with them. Although there may be no way to know the exact number of convents on the Iberian Peninsula during the Golden Age or how many women inhabited them, evidence still remains of a rich artistic and literary life that flourished intramuros. We know that nuns painted, wove tapestries, cooked, sang, and wrote literature. Autobiographical accounts of nuns such as Santa Teresa de Jesús, known as vidas, have captured the attention of many scholars, perhaps due to the fascinating mystic tradition manifest in those texts. The vibrant theatrical tradition of the convent, however, has largely gone unnoticed. As Lisa Vollendorf argues, “This lack of attention can be attributed to the problem of access to texts and to the tendency among those of us trained as secular humanists to shy away from religious topics” (95). Fortunately, recent efforts have promoted a new awareness of convent plays, although it seems safe to say that the great majority of Golden Age scholars have little or no interest in authors such as Sor Maria do Ceo and Sor Marcela de San Félix. Thankfully, the new surge in scholarship in this area has produced new editions of many of these texts, thereby making them available to a wider public and 1 encouraging their study. Nevertheless, academic criticism of these works has largely been limited to introductions and footnotes. Some critics do not hesitate to disparage this type of theater. In his article about women dramatists, Emilio Palacios Fernández discusses female playwrights such as Joanna Theodora de Souza and Maria do Ceo. Although he admits that the publication and presentation of their works constitutes a “fenómeno cultural,” he pointedly insists that “su producción dramatica no está a la misma altura que la del varón (más amplia y diversa)” (131). Palacios Fernández seems to take note of these women only in order to prove them lacking by comparison. Notwithstanding this example, criticism of this nature is the exception rather than the rule. In fact, the lack of attention that convent theater receives is due mostly to sins of omission, rather than commission. As a case in point, convent theater is largely absent from many theater anthologies and histories. For example, Ignacio Arellano’s Historia del teatro español del siglo XVII does not make mention of the convent theater tradition or any of the known peninsular nun playwrights. It does, however, discuss theater used for pedagogical purposes in Jesuit schools, the works of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, and autos sacramentales. Convent theater shares many points of contact with each of these, and yet has no place in this work. It is interesting to note that Arellano places Sor Juana, along with Ana Caro, in a section titled “Dramaturgos menores del ciclo de Calderón” (579; my emphasis), and that he makes no mention whatsoever of María de Zayas. Henryk Ziomek commits a similar omission in his less extensive study, A History of Spanish Golden Age Drama. Unlike Arellano’s study, Ziomek’s book has a narrower scope and he focuses mainly on the comedia, although he does write about religious 2 drama in his introductory chapter, including the genre of autos sacramentales. Nun playwrights, however, do not make an appearance in his work. Notwithstanding, this is not the only omission of female authors in Ziomek’s history, since Ana Caro is conspicuously absent, and he refers to María de Zayas only in conjunction with the playwright Juan de la Hoz y Mota, who wrote a comedia based on one of her novelas ejemplares. Ziomek does not reference Zayas’s comedia, La traición en la amistad. Lázaro Ladero Sánchez’s ambitious work, titled El siglo de oro español y sus contemporáneos, does not limit itself to early modern literature from Spain, but rather includes texts and authors from other European countries, as well, such as Portugal, Holland, Italy, and France, to name just a few. It even discusses authors and works from the Americas and the Far East. Although it does contain a section on religious literature in Spain, it limits itself to the inclusion of Teresa de Jesús and Juan de la Cruz. With regard to secular women playwrights, Ladero Sánchez includes María de Zayas, but not Ana Caro. To be perfectly fair, the scope of these histories is very broad, and by nature must make certain exclusions. I do find, however, that the inclusion or exclusion of female playwrights, specifically Ana Caro and María de Zayas, is a telling litmus test that reveals the author’s sensibilities. If critics such as Arellano, Ziomek, and Ladero Sánchez do not mention Caro and Zayas in their studies, it is highly unlikely that they would include ‘lesser’ women writers, such as Sor Violante do Ceo or Sor Francisca de Santa Teresa. Although early modern convent theater was a widespread phenomenon, it traditionally has not enjoyed a place in literary history, unlike the highly popular and lucrative commercial theater of the Siglo de Oro. 3 On the other hand, other similar studies make more of a concerted effort to include female playwrights, including those who wrote convent theater. One such study is the voluminous and ambitious Historia del teatro español, edited by Fernando Doménech Rico, which contains a section titled “El teatro conventual” (1254). This section, included in the chapter “El teatro escrito por mujeres” (1243), makes mention of Sor María de San Alberto, Sor Cecilia del Nacimiento, Sor Marcela de San Félix, and Sor Francisca de Santa Teresa. The Cambridge History of Spanish Literature includes a chapter by Alison Weber titled “Religious Literature in Early Modern Spain,” in which she makes note of Sor Marcela. The majority of the chapter, however, is devoted to those religious men and women who wrote prose rather than drama. On the Portuguese side, Domingo Garcia Peres’s heftily titled Catálogo razonado biográfico y bibliográfico de los autores portugueses que escribieron en castellano includes Sor Violante with an interesting editorial note. The author points out that “Sus obras que no obtuvieron sino loores de sus contemporáneos, están hoy olvidadas, si no desconocidas; si entónces hubo exageración, hoy hay injusticia notoria” (107). The much more recent História e Antologia da Literatura Portuguesa Século XVII includes an article on Sor Violante’s poetry by Margarida Vieira Mendes, as well as selected texts from Rimas Várias and Parnaso Lusitano. Neither Garcia Peres’s text nor História e Antologia makes mention of the Portuguese nun playwrights Sor Maria do Ceo and Dona Joanna Theodora de Souza. Admittedly, access to dramatic texts written by nuns is often difficult or even restricted. A small group of female scholars has dedicated themselves to the recovery of convent drama, and their efforts have begun to make these plays available to a wider audience while calling attention to the general lack of scholarship in this area. Electa 4 Arenal and Georgina Sabat de Rivers pioneered this field, beginning with the publication of the complete works of Sor Marcela de San Félix in 1988. Interestingly, the title of their anthology includes the appellation “hija de Lope de Vega.” Although several critics have employed this tactic of presenting Sor Marcela in conjunction with her father, it is important to note that this practice has the contradictory effect of both authorizing her as a talented writer by connecting her to a larger literary tradition, and undermining this authorization by suggesting that her work cannot stand on its own. Presenting Sor Marcela in juxtaposition with Lope de Vega is simultaneously necessary and patronizing. Soon after this publication, Arenal teamed up with Stacey Schlau to publish their seminal study on convent writing, Untold Sisters, which includes both criticism and texts. Later, other scholars, such as Susan Smith, edited and published long forgotten works by Sor Maria do Ceo, Sor Violante do Ceo, Sor Francisca de Santa Teresa, and Sor María de San Alberto. Literary criticism of their texts, however, has been scarce. I believe this lack of criticism is due, in large part, to the difficulty of accessing some of these texts, even today. For example, Ana Hatherly translated Sor Maria do Ceo’s collection of five autos, O triunfo do Rosário, from the original Spanish into Portuguese, and this edition is currently the only version available of those plays. Sor Maria’s play Clavel, y Rosa1 and the three autos she penned in honor of the Spanish saint San Alejo exist only as manuscripts. Fortunately, Valerie Hegstrom is currently working on an edition of all of Sor Maria’s extant works, thereby ensuring that scholars will have greater access to her literature than ever before. In a similar manner, Sor Violante’s villancicos appear only in the collection titled Parnaso Lusitano, published posthumously                                                                                                                 1 Although modern Spanish does not accept the use of a comma before the conjunction y, here I utilize the same formatting, spelling and punctuation as found in the original texts. Other play names, such as Perla, y Rosa, follow suit. 5