Farey neighbors and hyperbolic Lorenz knots Paulo Gomes∗, Nuno Franco†and Lu´ıs Silva‡ 6 1 January 27, 2016 0 2 n a J Abstract 6 2 Based on symbolic dynamics of Lorenz maps, we prove that, pro- vided one conjecture due to Morton is true, then Lorenz knots asso- ] S ciated to orbits of points in the renormalization intervals of Lorenz D maps with reducible kneading invariant of type (X,Y)∗S, where the . h sequences X and Y areFarey neighbors verifying someconditions, are t a hyperbolic. m [ 1 Introduction 1 v 0 Lorenz knots 7 0 7 Lorenz knots are the closed (periodic) orbits in the Lorenz system [15] 0 . 1 0 x′ = −10x+10y 6 1 y′ = 28x−y −xz (1) : v 8 i z′ = − z +xy X 3 r a while Lorenz links are finite collections of (possibly linked) Lorenz knots. The systematic study of Lorenz knots and links was made possible by the introduction of the Lorenz template or knot-holder by Williams in [21] ∗A´rea Departamental de Matema´tica, Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, e- mail: [email protected] †CIMA-UE and Departamento de Matema´tica, Universidade de E´vora, e-mail: [email protected] ‡CIMA-UEandA´reaDepartamentaldeMatema´tica,InstitutoSuperiordeEngenharia de Lisboa, e-mail: [email protected] 1 and [22]. It is a branched 2-manifold equipped with an expanding semi-flow, represented inFig. 1. It wasfirst conjecturedby Guckenheimer andWilliams and later proved through the work of Tucker [19] that every knot and link in the Lorenz system can be projected into the Lorenz template. Birman and Williams made use of this result to investigate Lorenz knots and links [1]. For a review on Lorenz knots and links, see also [3]. AT(p,q)torusknot is(isotopicto)acurve onthesurfaceofanunknotted torus T2 that intersects a meridian p times and a longitude q times. Birman and Williams [1] proved that every torus knot is a Lorenz knot. Asatelliteknotisdefinedasfollows: takeanontrivialknotC (companion) and nontrivial knot P (pattern) contained in a solid unknotted torus T and not contained in a 3−ball in T. A satellite knot is the image of P under an homeomorfism that takes the core of T onto C. A knot is hyperbolic if its complement in S3 is a hyperbolic 3−manifold. Thurston [17] proved that a knot is hyperbolic iff it is neither a satellite knot nor a torus knot. One of the goals in the study of Lorenz knots has been their classification into hyperbolic and non-hyperbolic, possibly further distinguishing torus knots from satellites. Birman and Kofman [2] listed hyperbolic Lorenz knots taken from a list of the simplest hyperbolic knots. In a previous article, [14], we generated and tested for hyperbolicity, using the program SnapPy, families of Lorenz knots that are a generalization of some of those that appear in this list, which led us to conjecture that the families tested are hyperbolic [13]. Morton has conjectured [5],[4] that all Lorenz satellite knots are cablings (satellites where the pattern is a torus knot) on Lorenz knots. In [10], based in the work of El-Rifai, [5], we derived an algorithm to obtain Lorenz satellite braids, together with the corresponding words from symbolic dynamics. The first-return map induced by the semi-flow on the branch line (the horizontal line in Fig. 1) is called a Lorenz map. If the branch line is mapped onto [−1,1], then the Lorenz map f becomes a one-dimensional map from [−1,1] \ {0} onto [−1,1], with one discontinuity at 0 and stricly increasing in each of the subintervals [−1,0[ and ]0,1]. Periodic orbits in the flows correspond to periodic orbits on the Lorenz maps, so symbolic dynamics of the Lorenz maps provide a codification of the Lorenz knots. In [7], using this codification, it was introduced an operation over Lorenz knots that is directly related with renormalization of Lorenz maps. In this work we prove that some families of knots, generated from torus knots through this operation, are hyperbolic. 2 L R Figure 1: The Lorenz template Lorenz braids If the Lorenz template is cut open along the dotted lines in Fig. 1, then each knot andlink on thetemplate can beobtained as theclosure ofan openbraid on the cut-open template, which will be called the Lorenz braid associated to the knot or link ([1]). These Lorenz braids are simple positive braids (our definition of positive crossing follows Birman and is therefore opposed to an usual convention inknot theory). Each Lorenz braidis composed of n = p+q strings, where the set of p left or L strings cross over at least one (possibly all) of the q right strings, with no crossings between strings in each subset. These sets can be subdivided into subsets LL, LR, RL and RR according to the position of the startpoints and endpoints of each string. An example of a Lorenz braid is shown in Fig. 2, where we adopt the convention of drawing the overcrossing (L) strings as thicker lines than the undercrossing (R) strings. This convention will be used in other braid diagrams. Each Lorenz braid β is a simple braid, i.e., a braid such that all its crossings are positive and every two strings only cross each other at most once, so it has an associated permutation π. This permutation has only one cycle iff it is associated to a knot, and has k cycles if it is associated to a link with k components (knots). Symbolic dynamics for the Lorenz map Let fj = f ◦ fj−1 be the j-th iterate of the Lorenz map f and f0 be the identity map. We define the itinerary of a point x under f as the symbolic sequence (i (x)) , j = 0,1,... where f j L if fj(x) < 0 (i (x)) = 0 if fj(x) = 0 f j  R if fj(x) > 0.  The itinerary of a point in [−1,1]\{0} under the Lorenz map can either 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Figure 2: A Lorenz braid be an infinite word in the symbols L,R or a finite word in L,R terminated by a single symbol 0 (because f is undefined at x = 0). The length |X| ofa finite word X = X ...X 0 is n, so it can be written as X = X ...X 0. A 0 n−1 0 |X|−1 word X is periodic if X = (X ...X )∞ for some p > 1. If p is the least 0 p−1 integer for which this holds, then p is the (least) period of X. The space Σ of all finite and infinite words can be ordered in the lexico- graphic order induced by L < 0 < R: given X,Y ∈ Σ, let k be the first index such that X 6= Y . Then X < Y if X < Y and Y < X otherwise. k k k k The shift map s : Σ\{0} → Σ is defined as usual by s(X X ...) = X ... 0 1 1 (it just deletes the first symbol). From the definition above, an infinite word X is periodic iff there is p > 1 such that sp(X) = X. The sequence W,s(W),...,sp−1(W) will also be called the orbit of W and a word in the orbit of W will be generally called a shift of W. A (finite or infinite) word X is called L-maximal if X = L and for 0 k > 0, X = L ⇒ sk(X) ≤ X, and R-minimal if X = R and for k > 0, k 0 X = R ⇒ X ≥ sk(X). An infinite periodic word (X ...X )∞ with k 0 n−1 least period n is L-maximal (resp. R-minimal) if and only if the finite word X ...X 0 is L-maximal (resp. R-minimal). Therefore, there exists a bi- 0 n−1 jective correspondence between the set of L-maximal (resp.R-minimal) finite words and the cyclic permutations classes of periodic words. For a finite word W, n (W) andn (W) will denote respectively the num- L R ber ofLandRsymbols inW, andn = n +n thelengthofW. Analogously, L R 4 LRLRL LRRLR RLRLR RLRRL RRLRL LRLRL LRRLR RLRLR RLRRL RRLRL Figure 3: Lorenz braid corresponding to W = (LRRLR)∞ if W is periodic with least period n then we define n (W) = n (W′) and L L n (W) = n (W′), where W′ is the L-maximal finite word corresponding R R to W. Each periodic word is associated to a Lorenz braid (whose closure is a Lorenz knot), which can be obtained through the following procedure: given a periodic word W with least period n, order the successive shifts s(W),s2(W),...,sn(W) = W lexicographically and associate them to start- points and endpoints in the associated Lorenz braid, with points correspond- ing to words starting with L lying on the left half and points corresponding to words starting with R on the right half. Each string in the braid con- nects the startpoint corresponding to sk(W) to the endpoint corresponding to sk+1(W). Fig. 3 exemplifies this procedure for W = (LRRLR)∞. Each periodic orbit of the flow has a unique corresponding orbit in the Lorenz map, which in turn corresponds to the cyclic permutation class of one periodic word in the symbols L,R. Sometimes we will refer to the knot represented by an L-maximal or an R-minimal word, meaning the knot corresponding to the associated periodic word. The crossing number is the smallest number of crossings in any diagram of a knot K. The braid index is the smallest number of strings among braids whose closure is K. A syllable of a word is a subword of type LaRb with maximal length. Thetrip number tof aperiodicwordW withleast periodnisthesmallest 5 1 p 2p (k-1)p+1 (kp+1) (k+1)p+1 p+q 1 p 2p (k-1)p+1 (kp+1) (k+1)p+1 p+q Figure 4: Lorenz braid of T(p,q)(p < q) number of syllables of all its subwords with length n. The trip number of a Lorenz link is the sum of the trip numbers of its components. Franks and Williams [11], followed by Waddington [20], proved that the braid index of a Lorenz knot is equal to its trip number. This result had previously been conjectured by Birman and Williams [1]. 2 Syllable permutations of torus knots words It was proved in [1] that all torus knots are Lorenz knots. The torus knot T(p,q) is the closure of a Lorenz braid in n = p + q strings, with p left or L strings that cross over q right or R strings, such that each L string crosses over all the R strings. This Lorenz braid of a torus knot thus has the maximum number of crossings (pq) for a Lorenz braid with p L strings and q R strings. Since T(q,p) = T(p,q) we will only consider torus knots T(p,q) with p < q. The structure of the Lorenz braid of a torus knot T(p,q) (p < q) is sketched in Fig. 4, where only the first and last L strings and some of the R strings are drawn. The remaining L (R) strings are parallel to the L (R) strings shown. Lorenz knots corresponding to orbits in the Lorenz template which are represented by evenly distributed words in the alphabet {L,R} are torus knots [1]. On the other hand, given a torus knot T(p,q) there is an evenly 6 distributed word with n = p, n = q, that represents it. There is thus L R a bijection between torus knots and cyclic permutation classes of evenly distributed words. We will call the L−maximal word that represents T(p,q) the standard word W(p,q) for T(p,q). Definition 1. We define P(p,q) as the set of L-maximal words resulting from permutations of syllables of the standard word W(p,q) for T(p,q). In [10] we proved the following results: Proposition 1. For each word W in P(p,q), 4 < p < q, distinct from W(p,q), there is at most one torus knot T(p,q′), q′ < q, with the same braid index and genus as the closure of the braid corresponding to W. Proposition 2. For each odd integer p > 4 and all integer k > 0, the sets P(p,q), for q = kp+2 and q = (k+1)p−2 contain no words corresponding to braids whose closure is a torus knot, besides W(p,q). Proposition 3. If p > 4 is even and not a multiple of 3, then for any integer k the sets P(p,kp+3) and P(p,(k+1)p−3) contain no words corresponding to braids whose closure is a torus knot. Also, if p < 12 and p is even, then P(p,q) contains no words other than W(p,q) corresponding to torus knots. In [10] we derived an algorithm, based in the work of El-Rifai, [6], to obtain Lorenz satellite braids, together with their corresponding aperiodic words and proved that none of the words in the sets P(p,q) can be obtained through this procedure. Thus concluding the following result. Proposition 4. If Morton’s conjecture is true then the Lorenz knots corre- sponding to syllable permutations of standard torus words, that is, the knots corresponding to words in the sets P(p,q), are not satellites. Sowe canconclude fromPropositions2 and3that, if Morton’sconjecture is true, then the words in sets P(p,kp + 2), P(p,(k + 1)p − 2) for p odd and P(p,kp + 3), P(p,(k + 1)p − 3), for p even and p not a multiple of 3, distinct from the standard W(p,q) torus word, correspond to hyperbolic Lorenz knots. Moreover, we have recently performed an extensive computational test [14], in which we computed the volumes of all knot complements corre- sponding to words in the (non-empty) sets P(p,q) with 5 ≤ p ≤ 19 and 6 ≤ q ≤ 100. We found all of them to be hyperbolic, with the expected exception of the torus knots T(p,q) corresponding to the standard words W(p,q). 7 3 Farey pairs In [7] it was introduced one operation over Lorenz links that is directly re- lated with renormalization of Lorenz maps. Generically, Lorenz maps are one-dimensional maps, g : [−1,1] → [−1,1], with one single discontinuity at 0, increasing in both continuity intervals and such that g(±1) = ±1. In particular the first-return map from the original Lorenz template is a Lorenz map in this sense, with the particularity of being surjective in both conti- nuity intervals. If the critical orbits are finite, then Lorenz maps generate sub-Lorenz templates, see [12] and [9]. These templates are contained in the Lorenz template, so all knots in them are Lorenz knots. The combina- torics of a Lorenz map g, such as the corresponding sub-Lorenz template, are completely determined by its kneading invariant, i.e., by the pair (X,Y), where X = Lig(limx→0− g(x)) and Y = Rig(limx→0+g(x)) are the critical itineraries. We say that a pair (X,Y) ∈ Σ × Σ is admissible if it is the kneading invariant of some Lorenz map g. In [16] it was proved the following result. Proposition 5. A pair (X,Y) ∈ Σ2 is admissible if and only if the following conditions are verified: 1. For any Z ∈ {X,Y}, if Z = L then σi(Z) ≤ X. i 2. For any Z ∈ {X,Y}, if Z = R then σi(Z) ≥ Y. i 3. The previous inequalities are strict if any of the words involved is finite. For an admissible pair of finite words (X,Y) ∈ Σ×Σ and a finite word S ∈ Σ, we define the ∗-product (X,Y)∗S = S ...S 0, 0 |S|−1 where X ...X if S = L S = 0 |X|−1 j j Y ...Y if S = R 0 |Y|−1 j (cid:26) Words of type (X,Y)∗S are the itineraries of points in the renormaliza- tion intervals of renormalizable Lorenz maps, and in [7] it was studied the structure of their corresponding Lorenz knots, as a geometric construction depending on the Lorenz link defined by the pair (X,Y) and on the Lorenz knot defined by S. On the other hand [18], evenly distributed words in Σ are exactly those that cannot bewrittenas(X,Y)∗S forsomeadmissible pair(X,Y), so torus 8 knotscorrespondtowordsthatareirreducible relatively tothe∗-productand the hyperbolic and satellite Lorenz knots are generated under the geometric construction derived from the ∗-product. TheL-maximalandR-minimalevenlydistributedwordscanbegenerated recursively in the Symbolic Farey trees constructed below. First we define the L-maximal symbolic Farey tree, F− = ∪∞ F−, where i=0 i F− = {L0} and, for all n, 0 F− = F− ∪{LRn+10}∪ n+1 n Y ...Y X ...X 0 : X < Y are consecutive words in F− . 0 |Y|−1 0 |X|−1 n N(cid:8)ow we say that two L-maximal words X < Y are Farey neighb(cid:11)ours if there is some n such that they are consecutive words in F−. n So we have F−: L0 LR0 LRL0 LRR0 LRLL0 LRLRL0 LRRLR0 LRRR0 . . . . . . . . . . . . WedefineanalogouslytheR-minimal symbolic Fareytree, F+ = ∪∞ F+, i=0 i where F+ = {R0} and, for all n, 0 F+ = F+ ∪{RLn+10}∪ n+1 n X ...X Y ...Y 0 : X < Y are consecutive words in F+ . 0 |X|−1 0 |Y|−1 n F(cid:8)inally we have F+: (cid:11) R0 RL0 RLL0 RLR0 RLLL0 RLLRL0 RLRRL0 RLRR0 . . . . . . . . . . . . For a word X ∈ F−, we may define its R-minimal version m(X) = min{X ...X X ...X 0 : X = R}. It is immediate to observe that j |X|−1 0 j−1 j each word Y ∈ F+ \F+ is obtained as m(X) where X ∈ F− \F− is in the 0 0 same position of F− \F−. 0 Definition 2. A Farey pair is a pair (X,Y) where Y = m(S), X,S ∈ F−, and X and S are Farey neighbours with S < X. 9 FromthepointofviewofthegenealogyofLorenzwords, see[16], wordsof type (X,Y)∗S where (X,Y) are Farey pairs, are the ”first” reducible words. In the rest of this paper, we will prove that, if Morton’s conjecture is true, then those words never correspond to satellite Lorenz knots and, for some specific familiesofFareypairs(X,Y)theyallcorrespondtohyperbolicknots. However, thecomputationaltestsperformedin[14],leadustoconjecturethat all words of the referred type correspond to hyperbolic knots. Lemma 1. If (X,Y) is a Farey pair, then (X,Y) is admissible. Proof. The proof follows immediately from the construction of the symbolic Farey trees. Theorem 1. Let (X,Y) be a Farey pair such that t(X) > 1 and t(Y) > 1. Let p = min{n (X),n (X)}, q = max{n (X),n (X)}, p = min{n (Y),n (Y)}, 1 L R 1 L R 2 L R q = max{n (Y),n (Y)}, q = kp +r (0 < r < p ), q = kp + r (0 < 2 L R 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 r < p ). The Lorenz knots associated to X and Y are respectively the torus 2 2 knots T(p ,q ) and T(p ,q ). Then, for any finite aperiodic word S ∈ Σ, 1 1 2 2 Z = (X,Y) ∗ S is a nontrivial syllable permutation of the standard evenly distributed word associated to the torus knot T(p,q), where q = kp + r(1 < r < p − 1), where p = n (S)p + n (S)p =, q = n (S)q + n (S)q , L 1 R 2 L 1 R 2 r = n (S)r +n (S)r . L 1 R 2 Proof. Z = (S S ...S )∞ where 0 1 |S|−1 X X ...X if S = L S = 0 1 p1+q1−1 i . i (Y0Y1...Yp2+q2−1 if Si = R First assume n (X) < n (X), n (Y) < n (Y). X and Y must have the R L R L form X = LRLk...RLk0, Y = RLk+1...RLk0. In Z, pairs of consecutive subwords are therefore of one of the following types: • XX = LRLk...RLkLRLk...RLk = LRLk...RLk+1RLk...RLk • XY = LRLk...RLkRLk+1...RLk • YX = RLk+1...RLkLRLk...RLk = RLk+1...RLk+1RLk...RLk • YY = RLk+1...RLkRLk+1...RLk Therefore, any shift of Z starting with an R has syllables of only two types: RLk and RLk+1 and must therefore be a syllable permutation of the torus knot T(p,q), where p = n (Z) = n (S)p +n (S)p and q = n (Z) = R L 1 R 2 L n (S)q + n (S)q . Since Z is reducible, Z is not in the Farey tree and L 1 R 2 10