Eyes in the Sky: The Domestic Deployment of Drone Technology & Aerial Surveillance in Canada by Shayna Gersher A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Political Economy Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2014, Shayna Gersher Abstract Drones are part of a digital network of data collection technologies that enable new flows of information. There is reason to believe that military, police, and corporations, with their sizeable budgets, are amongst the main purchasers of drones in Canada. In the context of a post 9/11 heightened security environment, these organizations rely on drones primarily for their sensory and data collection equipment, effectively rendering them surveillance technologies. The growing drone economy’s corporate, government, and military partnerships are leading the regulatory development which ultimately fails to address civil liberties and privacy in Canada. ii Acknowledgements My Master’s thesis journey could not be realized without the help of so many people, and also without the generous funding sustaining me over the last two years and enabling me to carry out this research and maximize professional opportunities. My first set of thanks is owed to all the generous sources of funding, particularly the Joseph-Armand Bombardier Canada Graduate Scholarship (SSHRC), the Ontario Graduate Scholarship, and Carleton University Graduate Studies Scholarship. There are numerous people that have helped shape my work, enriched the quality of my thoughts, and/or provided me with incredible opportunities to have my research heard on a larger scale. My deepest gratitude goes to Dr. David Goldberg, Dr. Katina Michael, Dr. Tyler Wall, Dr. George Rigakos, Dr. David Lyon, Dr. Helmut-Harry Loewen, Jeffrey Monaghan, and Ciara Bracken-Roche. Likewise, a group of dedicated and brilliant privacy advocates have provided me with knowledge, editorial touches, professional opportunities, and friendship, and so my sincerest thanks goes to Kasia Krzymien, Chris Prince, and Nicholas Koutros. There is an incredible gem of a department at Carleton University that requires huge recognition for supporting my research and encouraging me over the past two years. Thank you to the incredible faculty and administration at the Institute of Political Economy, notably Donna Coghill, Dr. Laura Macdonald, and Dr. Janet Siltanen. A big thank you is also owed to my extraordinary PECO peers for the familial and inclusive bond that was forged in Dunton Towers and which made this, at times, arduous journey so much easier. I must say that a key criteria in my decision to enroll at the Institute of Political Economy was the selection of inspiring professors affiliated with the department. Around the time I was making my decision for which graduate programs to apply, the Conservative Party was proposing a contentious Lawful Access legislation. Dr. Dwayne Winseck was amongst a few prominent Canadian scholars interviewed in a short film, highlighting the unfettered surveillance capabilities of the proposed legislation. Dwayne’s critique resonated with me and I was struck by how he made himself available to the public, and hence, to potential students across the country looking to study with the best minds. Thanks for agreeing to be my supervisor Dwayne. You have been nothing but supportive, have gone out of your way to make yourself available, and have improved my ideas and writing! I would also like to express my deepest appreciation to my thesis committee who has spent time reading my work amid their busy professor schedules, Michael Mac Neil and Dr. Martin Geiger. An additional thanks is owed to Martin, who provided me with valuable input and encouragement throughout the year. Where would I be without those Monday texts reminding me to get my thesis done?! Or those ginger snap cookies delivered in the night to give me a boost of energy?! Or those kicks in the tuchus to get a university degree?! Or those impromptu practices in kitchens, living rooms, over skype preparing for conferences and media calls?! I would have packed this degree in long ago if it were not for my friends and family! There are no words to express my love and appreciation to you all. But know this, you will be seeing a lot more of me than in the past two years… That’s for sure! I do want to give a little extra shout out to my papa David, mamachka Anya, all the iii sisters (and brothers) in my life – notably Malvina and Sarina. Also my dedas and babas, mishpoocha, John and Velma. Spasieba, toda, shukriya, danke, thank you!! It is no easy task to thank all those inspiring people in your life that shape you in the profoundest of ways. I must try to put to words my sincerest gratitude to a few more people for helping me get this thesis delivered! There are two “socio-therapists” I cannot live without and whom I was blessed to be taught and supervised by in my undergrad, and even more blessed today to call my friends, Dr. Kirsten Kramar and Dr. Heidi Rimke. I bet you two never could have imagined that taking me on as a student over six years ago would mean that I would never stop coming to you for professional, and now personal, advice. Thank you for encouraging me all these years and continuing to impart your knowledge and give me inspiration and strength in all my professional endeavours. Last, but definitely not least, an infinite number of thanks goes to Johnny – the root of my inspiration for this thesis and whom I tap into daily for emotional, spiritual, and mental support and creativity. Thanks for taking the jump with me to Ottawa and into this whirlwind of a journey, I am forever grateful to you for being my anchor here and for sharing your brilliance with me. iv Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... v List of Acronyms ........................................................................................................................ viii Preface ............................................................................................................................................ 1 1 Chapter: Understanding the Drone Phenomena ................................................................. 5 1.1 Defining Drones .............................................................................................................................. 6 1.2 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................ 9 1.2.1 Safety & Liability .................................................................................................................. 10 1.2.2 Privacy & Surveillance .......................................................................................................... 11 1.2.3 Social Justice, Ethics & Surveillance ..................................................................................... 14 1.2.4 The Politics of Security .......................................................................................................... 17 1.2.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 19 1.3 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 21 1.3.1 Why Access to Information & Privacy (ATIP) Requests? .................................................... 22 1.3.2 ATIP Process ......................................................................................................................... 23 1.3.3 Agencies Selected & Excluded from ATIPs .......................................................................... 24 1.3.4 Formal ATIP Requests ........................................................................................................... 25 1.3.5 Informal ATIP Requests ........................................................................................................ 30 1.3.6 ATIP Results .......................................................................................................................... 31 1.3.7 Additional Materials .............................................................................................................. 34 2 Chapter: Theoretical Foundations ...................................................................................... 36 2.1 Political Technologies ................................................................................................................... 38 v 2.2 The Surveillance Society ............................................................................................................... 44 2.2.1 Digital Surveillance Systems & Emergent Social Processes ................................................. 45 2.3 The Surveillance-Industrial Complex ........................................................................................... 52 3 Chapter: Canada’s Drone Story .......................................................................................... 57 3.1 The Drone Policy Makers ............................................................................................................. 59 3.2 Civil Drone Regulations ................................................................................................................ 62 3.2.1 Technical Revisions to the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) ..................................... 63 3.2.2 Regulatory Exemptions for Drones ........................................................................................ 63 3.2.3 Certification Changes ............................................................................................................. 64 3.2.4 Cross-Border Operations ....................................................................................................... 66 3.2.5 Beyond Line of Sight (BLOS) ............................................................................................... 67 3.3 Police Drones ................................................................................................................................ 68 3.3.1 Police Use of Drones ............................................................................................................. 68 3.3.2 Police Drone Capabilities, Advantages & Drawbacks ........................................................... 71 3.3.3 Royal Canadian Mounted Police Policy for Drones .............................................................. 72 3.3.4 Future Aspirations .................................................................................................................. 73 3.4 Drones on the Border .................................................................................................................... 75 3.4.1 Border Drone Initiatives ........................................................................................................ 76 3.4.2 Border Drone Capabilities, Enforcement Tactics & Targets of Interest ................................ 82 3.5 Drones & the Military ................................................................................................................... 87 3.5.1 Domestic Military Drone Operations & Projects ................................................................... 87 3.5.2 The Department of National Defence’s Drone Regulations .................................................. 92 3.6 Canada’s Drone Industry ............................................................................................................... 94 3.6.1 Canada’s Drone Lobbies ........................................................................................................ 95 3.6.2 Domestic Drone Market ......................................................................................................... 99 3.6.3 Industry Operations, Contracts & “Turnkey Services” ........................................................ 104 vi 4 Chapter: Privacy & the Politics of Drone Technology .................................................... 109 4.1 Canadian Privacy Laws ............................................................................................................... 109 4.2 Drone Legislation & the Courts .................................................................................................. 114 4.3 Introducing Drone Technology as Political Artifact ................................................................... 117 5 Chapter: Unmasking the Undemocratic Integration of Drones in Canada .................. 121 5.1 Drones & the Surveillance-Industrial Complex .......................................................................... 121 5.2 Situating Drone Technology in the Surveillance Society ............................................................ 128 5.3 Conceptualizing an Alternate Path for Drones ............................................................................ 134 Appendices ................................................................................................................................. 137 Appendix A - Access to Information Form .......................................................................................... 137 Appendix B - Access to Information & Privacy Request Summaries .................................................. 138 Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 140 vii List of Acronyms ATIA – Access to Information Act ATIP – Access to Information and Privacy AUVSI – Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International BLOS – Beyond Line of Sight CARs – Canadian Aviation Regulations CBP – Customs and Border Protection, United States CBSA – Canada Border Services Agency CCUVS – Canadian Centre for Unmanned Vehicle Systems CF – Canadian Forces DFATD – Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development DHS – Department of Homeland Security, United States DND – Department of National Defence DSA – Detect-Sense-and-Avoid FAA – Federal Aviation Administration, United States GAO – Government Accountability Office, United States HALE – High Altitude Long Endurance IBET – Integrated Border Enforcement Team ICAO – International Civil Aviation Organization IRB – Industrial Regional Benefits IT – Information Technology JUSTAS – Joint Unmanned Surveillance Target Acquisition System viii NxtGen – Next Generation NRC – National Research Council of Canada PIA – Privacy Impact Assessment PIPEDA – Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act RCC – Regulatory Cooperation Council RCMP – Royal Canadian Mounted Police RPA – Remotely Piloted Aircraft RPAS – Remotely Piloted Aircraft System SBI – Secure Border Initiative SBInet – Secure Border Initiative-network SFOC – Special Flight Operations Certificate SPP – Security Prosperity Partnership OPC – Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada OPP – Ontario Provincial Police UA – Unmanned Aircraft UAS – Unmanned Aircraft System UAV – Unmanned Air Vehicle USC – Unmanned Systems Canada USCG – United States Coast Guard UVS – Unmanned Vehicle Systems ix Preface Unmanned aircraft, most commonly referred to as “drones,” have an old history and one that is congruent with militaristic innovation. The Chinese General Zhuge Liang is considered to have deployed some of the first unmanned aircraft technologies as early as the second century BCE when he fuelled paper air balloons by oil-lamps to ward off oppositional forces at night (Jarnot, 2012, p. 1). Overtime, unmanned aircraft systems took on a variety of forms. The aerial torpedo for instance, developed by the United States during World War I, “combined the inventions of the radio, airplane, and mechanical autopilot” to produce an unmanned combat aircraft (Jarnot, 2012, p. 3). In Canada, drones emerged as a joint military-industry undertaking in the late 1950s (Carryer, 2008). During this time, Canada’s drone industry was “recognized world leaders” in the military market for inventions such as Canadair’s rocket-resembled CL-89 and CL-289 unmanned aircrafts (Carryer, 2008, p. 4). These earlier models however, are not the advanced drones of today. By the nineteen-nineties, modern technologies such as microelectronics, the global positioning system, various sensors, and/or laser-guided weapons were integrated into unmanned aircraft in ways that distinguish them from their predecessors (Singer, 2011, p. 69). In the contemporary moment, drones are most infamously associated with the United States’ targeted killings throughout the Middle East and Africa, leading many to question the legality and ethicality of their use (Benjamin, 2013; Gregory, 2011; Adey, Whitehead & Williams, 2011; Delmont, 2013). However, there are many more uses beyond the military. Drones are increasingly being repurposed for commercial and public uses around the world. Small drones, such as those weighing 35kg, are being deployed in harsh climates such as the Arctic and Antarctica to conduct scientific research (Madrigal, 2009). Micro drones with 1