European Societies in the Bronze Age The European Bronze Age, roughly 2500 to 750 BC, was the last fully prehistoric period and crucially important for the formation of the Europe that emerged in the later first millennium BC. This book provides a detailed account of its ma- terial culture, and focuses on the findings of the past twenty years, when a large amount of data was collected, necessitating a revision of received views on many aspects of the period. By comparing and contrasting evidence from different geo- graphical and cultural zones of Europe, it draws out the essential characteristics of the Bronze Age. Arranged thematically, it reviews the evidence on settlement, burial, economy, technology, trade and transport, warfare, and social and religious life, and describes the main theoretical models that have been developed to inter- pret these new materials. The result is a comprehensive study that will be of value to specialists and students, and accessible to non-specialists. ANTHONY F. HARDING is Professor of Archaeology at the University of Durham. He has worked on sites in many countries of Europe, directing excava- tions in Britain, Poland and the Czech Republic, and has published widely on Bronze Age archaeology. His publications include The Bronze Age in Europe, with John Coles (1979); The Mycenaeans and Europe (1984) and Die Schwerter im ehemaligen Jugoslawien (1995). CAMBRIDGE WORLD ARCHAEOOGY Series editor NORMAN YOFFEE, University of Michigan Editorial board SUSAN ALCOCK, University of Michigan TOM DILLEHAy, University of Kentucky CHRIS GOSDEN, University of Oxford CARLA SINOPOLI, University of Michigan The Cambridge World Archaeology series is addressed to stu- dents and professional archaeologists, and to academics in related disciplines. Each volume presents a survey of the archaeology of a region of the world, providing an up-to-date account of research and integrating recent findings with new concerns of interpre- tation. While the focus is on a specific region, broader cultural trends are discussed and the implications of regional findings for cross-cultural interpretations considered. The authors also bring anthropological and historical expertise to bear on archaeologi- cal problems, and show how both new data and changing intel- lectual trends in archaeology shape inferences about the past. Books in the series RAYMOND ALLCHIN AND BRIDGET ALLCHIN, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan CLIVE GAMBLE, The Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe CHARLES HIGHAM, Archaeology of Mainland South East Asia SARAH MILLEDGE NELSON, The Archaeology of Korea DAVID PHILLIPSON, African Archaeology (second revised edition) OLIVER DICKINSON, The Aegean Bronze Age KAREN OLSEN BRUHNS, Ancient South America ALASDAIR WHITTLE, Europe in the Neolithic CHARLES HIGHAM, The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia CLIVE GAMBLE, The Palaeolithic Societies of Europe DAN POTTS, The Archaeology of Elam CAMBRIDGE WORLD ARCHAEOLOGY EUROPEAN SOCIETIES IN THE BRONZE AGE A. F. HARDING Department of Archaeology University of Durham PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA http://www.cup.org 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia © Cambridge University Press 2000 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2000 Typeset in Trump Medieval 10/13 [WV] A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data Harding, A. F. European societies in the Bronze Age / A. F. Harding. p. cm. – (Cambridge world archaeology) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 521 36477 9 (hc.) 1. Bronze Age–Europe. 2. Europe–Antiquities. I. Title. II. Series. GN778.2.A1H38 2000 936–dc21 99–28849 CIP ISBN 0 521 36477 9 hardback ISBN 0 521 36729 8 paperback Transferred to digital printing 2004 For Jan Bouzek, teacher and friend CONTENTS List of figures viii List of tables xiii Preface xv 1 Introduction 1 2 The Bronze Age house and village 22 3 Burial 73 4 The domestic economy 124 5 Transport and contact 164 6 Metals 197 7 Other crafts 242 8 Warfare 271 9 Religion and ritual 308 10 Hoards and hoarding 352 11 People 369 12 Social organisation 386 13 The Bronze Age world: questions of scale and interaction 414 14 Epilogue 431 References 436 Index 531 FIGURES 1.1 Political and physical divisions of Europe 2 1.2 Cultural sequence, west-central and northern Europe 12 1.3 Cultural sequence, east-central and eastern Europe 13 1.4 Cultural sequence, western Europe 15 1.5 Cultural sequence, Italy, Sicily and Sardinia 16 2.1 Depictions of Bronze Age buildings 25 2.2 Apalle, central Sweden: outline house plans 29 2.3 Round hut plans from southern England 31 2.4 Plans of settlements in northern England 33 2.5 Plan of Hut 3 at Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly, Ireland 35 2.6 Plan of Early Bronze Age houses at La Muculufa, Sicily 37 2.7 Plan and reconstruction of houses of Horizon B at the Padnal near Savognin, Engadin, Switzerland 39 2.8 Zürich-Mozartstrasse, plans of Early Bronze Age villages 41 2.9 House plans on tell sites 43 2.10 House plans in Scandinavia and north Germany 46 2.11 Zedau, Ostmark: simplified plan of the Late Bronze Age settlement 49 2.12 Lovcˇicˇky (Moravia): general plan of the Late Bronze Age settlement 51 2.13 Biskupin, plan of house 3, earlier phase 53 2.14 Settlement plans in wetland areas 59 2.15 General excavation plan of the settlement at Peñalosa, southern Spain 62 2.16 Nitriansky Hrádok, reconstructed plan of the Early Bronze Age fortified settlement 63 2.17 Cabezo de Monleón (Zaragoza): plan of the Late Bronze Age hilltop site 65 2.18 St-Oedenrode (North Brabant): general plan of house cluster 3 68 3.1 Burial traditions in Early Bronze Age Europe 78 3.2 Plan of the Early Bronze Age inhumation cemetery at Vy´cˇapy-Opatovce, Slovakia 79 3.3 Plan of the inhumation cemetery at Singen (Konstanz) 81 List of figures ix 3.4 Reconstructions of ‘mortuary houses’ in barrows 83 3.5 Barrows with post rings of various types 88 3.6 Plan of the barrow cemetery at Oakley Down, Dorset 90 3.7 Burial cists in Breton First Series barrows 94 3.8 Tumuli in Albania and Yugoslavia 102 3.9 Barrow with coffin burial, Beckdorf, Kr. Stade, Lower Saxony 104 3.10 Cemeteries with coffin graves 107 3.11 Ship settings from Germany and Sweden 110 3.12 Plan of the Urnfield cemetery at Vollmarshausen 115 3.13 Gemeinlebarn F, hypothetical reconstruction of three contemporary burying communities 116 3.14 Telgte, Kr. Warendorf, Westphalia, grave forms 119 3.15 Novaya Kvasnikova, Staropoltavkino, Volgograd, kurgan 4, burial 5: burial of a craftsman 121 4.1 Ards on Bronze Age sites 127 4.2 Wooden yokes 129 4.3 Sickle types in Bronze Age Europe 131 4.4 Twisk, North Holland, Middle Bronze Age circular structure interpreted as a corn-stack 133 4.5 Animal species at sites in north-west Europe and Germany 135 4.6 Animal species at sites in Hungary and Romania and Serbia 137 4.7 Animal species at sites in Italy and Sardinia and Spain and the Balearics 139 4.8 Cultivated plants on central European Bronze Age sites 147 4.9 Cultivated plants on Mediterranean Bronze Age sites 148 4.10 Fence lines under barrows 152 4.11 Field systems on the Marlborough Downs, Wiltshire 154 4.12 Field system on Holne Moor, Dartmoor 156 4.13 Animal hoofprints on Bronze Age sites 157 4.14 Cairnfields and field systems in the Midlands and north of England 160 4.15 Prehistoric fields at Vinarve, Rone parish, Gotland 162 5.1 Wheels from Bronze Age vehicles 166 5.2 Cult vehicle from Strettweg, Austria 168 5.3 Horse harness: cheek-pieces in bone and antler 171 5.4 Bronze Age wooden trackways 174 5.5 The lines of Bronze Age trackways in the Somerset Levels 175 5.6 Sprockhoff’s attempt at representing Late Bronze Age trade routes in northern Germany and Poland 176 x list of figures 5.7 Bronze Age boats 178 5.8 Paddles from Bronze Age sites 179 5.9 Bronze Age wreck sites around European shores 182 5.10 Boats from a rock-art panel at Vitlycke, Bohuslän, western Sweden 183 5.11 Rock-art sites in southern Uppland in relation to a presumed Bronze Age shoreline 186 5.12 Distribution of amber beads of the Tiryns and Allumiere types 191 5.13 Distribution of selected razor types in western Europe 192 5.14 Distribution of bronze vessel types 194 6.1 Major sources of copper in Europe 198 6.2 Copper ore sources in the Swiss Alps (Fahlerz and sulphide ores) 200 6.3 The effect on hardness after cold working of adding 8% tin to copper; ‘phase diagram’ of a copper–tin alloy 203 6.4 Metal types in the ‘Developed Early Bronze Age’ of the British Isles 205 6.5 Metal types in the Wilburton phase 206 6.6 Extraction area at Sˇpania Dolina-Piesky, central Slovakia 209 6.7 Extraction shafts (Pingen) and adjacent processing areas at the Mitterberg 212 6.8 ‘Mining tools’ from copper mines, and tongs, hammers and anvils from metalworking sites 214 6.9 Tuyères from Bronze Age metalworking sites 221 7.1 Wooden containers 245 7.2 Construction techniques on wooden trackways and pile sites 246 7.3 Pustopolje tumulus 16, reconstruction of the wooden grave chamber 248 7.4 Briquetage from Bronze Age sites 250 7.5 Loom installations and depictions 257 7.6 Loom-weights, spindle-whorls and spools 259 7.7 Textile from Ledro 261 7.8 Spin and weave types known from Bronze Age Europe 262 7.9 The occurrence of spin and weave types in Bronze Age Europe 265 7.10 Glass and faience beads 267 8.1 Ritual fighting with battle-axes: part of a rock-art panel at Fossum, Bohuslän 272 8.2 Bronze swords: the progression of types 276 8.3 Bronze spears: the progression of types 282 8.4 Shields and helmet on Iberian grave stelae 286