European Medieval Tactics (2) The Revival of Infantry 1260–1500 DAVID NICOLLE ILLUSTRATED BY ADAM HOOK © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Elite • 189 European Medieval Tactics (2) New Infantry, New Weapons 1260–1500 DAVID NICOLLE ILLUSTRATED BY ADAM HOOK Series editor Martin Windrow © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 4 THE 13TH–14TH CENTURY INFANTRY REVIVAL 10 From feudal militias to ‘mercenaries’ Italian armies and tactics The British Isles The Empire and Scandinavia France THE CHALLENGE OF BOW & CROSSBOW 21 The 14th to mid-15th centuries:Italian urban militias and condottieri – Venice France: indentured troops – urban forces The British Isles: coastal militias The Empire and Scandinavia: local forces – urban militias – leagues – ‘free knights’ – crossbowmen Diversity of troop types and tactics: elite infantry – professional men-at-arms – Flemish mixed-arm infantry – archers – Scottish and Swiss spearmen FROM KNIGHT TO MAN-AT-ARMS 34 The 14th to mid-15th centuries: France: the arrièreban and indentured companies England: mixed indentured companies – ‘hobelar’ light cavalry Italy: mercenary knights – the Venetian army – Angevin and Spanish southern Italy The Empire and Eastern Europe: Western and Eastern influences Strategy and tactics: French defensiveness and English aggression FORTIFICATIONS & FIREARMS 41 Up to the mid-15th century:Defensive co-operation between French regional networks – blockades and convoys Field fortifications: bastides, stakes, and ‘wagon forts’ Firearms: effectiveness and limitations of artillery – cost – the spread of handguns THE DAWN OF MODERN WARFARE 48 The second half of the 15th century: Infantry development Attitudes to war: Italy – France Continuing importance of armoured cavalry – skill-at-arms Italian tactics Firearms EXTERNAL CHALLENGES 58 Warfare on the frontiers of Western Christendom:The Baltic Hungary Spain BIBLIOGRAPHY 62 INDEX 64 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com EUROPEAN MEDIEVAL TACTICS (2) NEW INFANTRY, NEW WEAPONS 1260–1500 INTRODUCTION Two competing trends characterized late medieval Western European warfare from the late 13th to 15th centuries. Many armies became increasingly dominated by full-time professional soldiers, who were often of the minor nobility or of non-noble origin. However, the term ‘mercenary’ can be misleading, since such troops were, more often than not, recruited from Detail of the Retable of Santa within the state that employed them. Largely as a result of this process, many Ursulaby the Master of the Conquest of Mallorca; Spanish, Western and Central European armies took on an increasingly ‘national’ late 13th century. Note the character. During this period there was also a substantial development of chamfrons and mail protecting what might be called ‘national consciousness’ – a phenomenon particularly the heads, necks and breasts of characteristic of France and England, but which also emerged in many other the horses. (in situChurch of Sant Francesc, Mallorca City) parts of Europe during the 15th century. 4 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com War was often prosecuted by raiding and ravaging an enemy’s territory to destroy his economic base. This illustration of ‘Theft of Cattle’ is from an early 14th-century German law book. (Soestner Nequambuch IV, Stadtarchiv, A.2771, Soest) Nevertheless, there were significant exceptions to this trend, most obviously in Italy, where the professionalization of military recruitment led to a widespread enlistment of those regarded as ‘foreigners’. This term could indicate a soldier from outside Italy (the majority of such men being German, French, English or Spanish); or it could simply mean Italians from a different state within Italy, which was then one of the most politically fragmented regions of Europe. In several other parts of Western and Central Europe non-professional troops recruited on a traditional feudal basis continued to play a vital role; this was still apparent in France, Germany, and Italy, where part-time urban militias retained an important military function. In general, however, later medieval European warfare was normally conducted by a relatively small number of volunteers rather than involving the bulk of the population. Central and Eastern Europe If there were partial exceptions to this trend in Western Europe, there were even more in the central and south-eastern regions of the continent. Yet even here some degree of military professionalization could be seen, often focusing on supposedly ‘warrior peoples’ rather than upon social groups or individual 5 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Battle of Marchfeld, 26 August 1278. The armies of Emperor Rudolf and King Ladislas of Hungary joined forces near the village of Dürnkrut and had time to study the battlefield. King Ottokar of Bohemia arrived later; after establishing his camp near the village of Jedenspeigen, he arrayed his forces on level ground between the wooded hills and the marshes bordering the River March. Hungarian ‘Cuman’ light cavalry horse-archers persistently harassed one flank of Ottokar’s army, whereas Ottokar’s main forces made repeated cavalry attacks upon Rudolf’s main forces. Around midday Rudolf ordered a hidden ‘ambush’ force to attack Ottokar’s right flank, causing the Bohemian army to collapse. Initial dispositions: King Ottokar’s army (A)Bohemian camp (B) Reserve (C) Militia of Diedics (D)Poles (E)Ottokar with Bavarians & Saxons (F)Bohemians (G) Moravians (H)Misnians & Thuringians Emperor Rudolf’s Army: (I)Ambush force in forest & vineyards (J)Matthias of Trencin’s Hungarians (K)Count of Schildberg’s Hungarians (L)‘Cuman’ Hungarian horse-archers & light cavalry (M) Austrians (N)Rudolf with Styrians & Swabians (O)Reserve probably behind Weidenbach stream Movements: (1) Attacks on Ottokar’s left flank by horse-archers & light cavalry, continuing throughout battle; (2)Repeated frontal attacks by Ottokar’s main forces; (3)Counter-charges by Rudolf’s main forces; (4)Attack by Rudolf’s flanking ‘ambush’ force against Ottokar’s right flank, causing his army to crumble and flee; (5)Reserve probably joins battle to complete the rout. volunteers as in 13th and 14th-century Western Europe. In fact, these regions show interesting similarities with patterns of warfare and recruitment long characteristic of neighbouring Byzantine and Islamic territories. By the mid-14th century several states and peoples were involved in the struggle to dominate the Balkans. These wars not only involved professional Hungarian armies, which were similar to those of other parts of Central and A LITHUANIAN RAIDERS FIGHT NORTHERN followed by a probably less orderly force of their local CRUSADERS ON THE FROZEN SEA, WINTER Livonian auxiliaries (E). 1270 As the Crusaders charged, the Teutonic Knights drew In the deep winter of 1270 a large force of pagan Lithuanian slightly ahead, and as a result Traidenis’ experienced winter raiders, led by Grand Duke Traidenis, crossed the frozen Gulf warriors cut down many of their horses before the Christian of Riga from the northern tip of what is now Latvia to plunder flank forces reached the Lithuanian line. The Danes and the the fertile island of Ösel (now Saaremaa). Bishop Herman bishops’ men then broke through the pagans’ defences and Buxhoevden of Leal (now Lihula on the western coast of pursued some fugitives across the ice. However, behind them Estonia) hurriedly assembled his forces, plus those of the other Lithuanians rallied, almost surrounding the remaining Bishop of Tartu, some Danes from northern Estonia, and a knights and their local Livonian auxiliaries. Even after Bishop small unit of Teutonic Knights, and set out to cut the raiders’ Herman and the Danes returned from their pursuit, the escape route. After a vigorous pursuit the Christian force seem struggle continued, Master Otto and 52 Brethren of the to have caught up with the pagans on the ice near a sandy Teutonic Order being slain. Finally, as night fell, the wounded island off the southern tip of Saaremaa. Bishop Herman ordered a withdrawal. Although the The Lithuanians (A)formed their baggage sledges into Lithuanians reportedly suffered the greater losses, in the end a makeshift field fortification; about one-third of them were they were still in control of the battlefield on the blood-stained mounted, and the rest took off their skis to fight (inset). The ice, and kept the booty from their raid. They had thus Christians drew up three divisions, with the elite cavalry of demonstrated the ability of more lightly equipped but flexible the Teutonic Knights in the centre (B), Bishop Herman on troops, with improvised field fortifications, to withstand and the left (C) and the Danes on the right (D); they were outfight knightly cavalry. © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com C E B A D © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com of Western Europe, but also local Slav and Romanian forces, plus Turco- Mongol nomadic groups from the steppes. During the second half of the 14th century settled and Muslim Ottoman Turks would be added to this volatile mixture, and would indeed emerge triumphant a hundred years later. The Albanians were another of those so-called ‘warrior peoples’, and they played a leading role in Venetian forces in the Balkans, Greece, and eventually within Italy itself. Here it is important to note that the mass migration of Albanians into Greece which began early in the 14th century was almost a throwback to the ‘folk migrations’ of the early medieval period. In contrast, significant changes seen in north-eastern Europe during the later medieval period were rarely the result of population movements, for here new national identities were emerging. The original Prussians, who spoke a language akin to Lithuanian, were assimilated and disappeared as a separate group, whereas the neighbouring Lithuanians were eventually converted from paganism, some to Catholic and some to Orthodox Christianity. They were thus drawn into the broader civilizations of later medieval Europe. By that time, of course, the overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of Europe had been Christian or Muslim for many centuries. The only significant exceptions were found in the far north of Finland, Norway and Sweden, plus some isolated valleys on the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains. The fearsome Lithuanians had maintained their separate cultural identity since ancient times, as had the Finns and Estonians further north. Now, however, a new people – the Latvians – emerged from the disparate and mostly Balt-speaking tribes of a territory between the Lithuanians and Estonians, largely as a result of social and cultural pressure arising from German and Scandinavian Crusader conquest. Regional influences on tactical developments The later 14th and 15th centuries witnessed an increasing imbalance in the competing manpower resources of Christian and Muslim civilizations. Detail of the effigy of Louis de France, died 1319; note laced defences on forearms under loose mail sleeves. (in situ Basilica of St Denis, Paris; author’s photograph) 8 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com Whereas European Christendom was relatively densely populated in relation LEFT to its capacity to feed itself, many Muslim regions were under-populated. Coat-of-plates from Kussnach; This led to different forms of military structure and tactics when one side German or Swiss,c.1340–60. (Swiss National Museum, conquered a region populated by the other. In the Iberian peninsula, for Gessler No. 1, Zurich) example, Christian Spain and Portugal crushed the Muslim Andalusians and eventually caused the disappearance of Islam in this region. In contrast, the RIGHT Ottoman Turks would hold their vast Balkan conquests with small garrisons, The back of a wooden carving of a knight; north German while Muslims only became majorities in a few areas. c.1360–70. Note the detail of At the same time, in most parts of Europe the later Middle Ages would the coat-of-plates, and iron witness the development of more sophisticated battlefield tactics than had splint defences on the upper been seen for many centuries. Nevertheless, broader strategy remained and lower arms. (‘Levitic Pew’, in situCathedral, Verden) essentially the same as it had been since the collapse of the Western half of the Roman Empire. This largely unchanging broader strategy remained more important for the winning of wars than were large-scale clashes on the battlefield, where greater innovation could often be seen. Similarly, differences between more advanced countries at the heart of European civilization and those on the fringes of medieval Christendom generally increased in military and especially tactical terms, just as they did in economic and social fields. Naturally, the climate of a particular area affected its traditional campaigning season. In 13th and 14th-century Italy, for example, this season was normally from March to October, whereas it tended to be shorter further north. In contrast, some northern regions had their own very distinctive traditions of winter warfare that were not seen in the south. In almost all cases the primary offensive strategy remained raiding and the inflicting of as much devastation upon the enemy’s economic base as possible, while avoiding major confrontations with his main forces. Defenders, meanwhile, still focused upon 9 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com harassing, ambushing and otherwise forcing such raiders to withdraw. Siege warfare now seems to have declined in relative significance, though it was still by far the most important means of conquering territory. Meanwhile, three new or more clearly differentiated types of troops characterized western European warfare during the 14th and to some extent the 15th century. Alongside the improvement in infantry organization and effectiveness, there was now a clear distinction between ever more heavily armoured men-at-arms – especially when operating on horseback – and various types of light cavalry, who were no longer merely poorly equipped horsemen but were now allocated specific military roles. THE 13 –14 CENTURY INFANTRY TH TH REVIVAL By the end of the 13th century the continuing growth of a money economy in Western Europe had led to radical changes in military recruitment. Rulers and feudal barons had long trusted professional soldiers more than their own feudal troops, and now the wealth of many states led to such men being enlisted in increasing numbers. The majority still found employment within their own countries, though there was also some foreign recruitment. Nevertheless, the dividing line between feudal and paid soldiers remained blurred. For example, it became normal for urban militias to receive wages once they had completed their defined period of feudal service, and, since many campaigns lasted longer than this, the need for money to pay troops came to dominate government priorities. Battle of Campaldino, 11 June 1289. The army of Florence and its Guelph (pro-Papal) allies, commanded by Guillaume de Durfort and Aimeric de Narbonne, confronted the considerably smaller army of Arezzo and its Ghibelline (pro-Imperial) allies on the plain of Campaldino. Nevertheless, the Aretine commander Guglielmino degli Ubertini attacked with his best cavalry and infantry. This joint assault was successful until infantry on the Florentine wings enveloped the attackers. The main force of Aretine infantry advanced in support, but was struck in both flanks. The Florentine reserve under Corso Donati then charged, routing the Aretine main force. Initial dispositions: Florentine & Guelph Army (A)Right wing pavesari,crossbowmen, archers, & infantry with long spears (B) Florentine feditori cavalry (C) Left wing infantry (D)Infantry (E)Cavalry main body (F)Infantry (G) Baggage train & infantry (H)Rearguard cavalry (I)Reserve Aretine & Ghibelline Army (J)Archers & crossbowmen (K)Arezzo feditoricavalry (L) Archers & crossbowmen (M)Cavalry main body (N)Infantry (O) Reserve Movements: (1)Attack by Aretine cavalry and infantry; (2)Florentine cavalry centre forced back; (3)Florentine wings envelop attackers; (4) Main Aretine infantry force advances to prevent front rank being surrounded; (5) Florentine reserve threaten Aretine right flank; (6)Aretine infantry withdraw, leaving most of front line to be surrounded; (7)Aretine reserve retreats to Poppi. 10 © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com