The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Study, by George Fillmore Swain This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: How to Study Author: George Fillmore Swain Release Date: October 21, 2009 [EBook #30309] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO STUDY *** Produced by Al Haines HOW TO STUDY BY GEORGE FILLMORE SWAIN, LL. D. GORDON MCKAY PROFESSOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY; PAST-PRESIDENT, AM. SOC. C. E.; FORMERLY CHAIRMAN OF THE BOSTON TRANSIT COMMISSION; CONSULTING ENGINEER FIRST EDITION FOURTEENTH IMPRESSION TOTAL ISSUE, 45,000 McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE LONDON: 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4 1917 COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY THE McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA PREFACE The present paper has been suggested by a long experience in teaching, in which the writer has been continually surprised at the ignorance manifested by students in the higher classes of our technical schools and universities, or graduates from such schools, with reference to proper methods of study. If his experience is a reliable guide, & large majority of the graduates from such schools, as well as some teachers in them, have not acquired proper habits and methods of study, and have devoted little or no attention to the consideration of the subject, vital though it is. It is undoubtedly true that training in the proper habits and methods of study should be inculcated by each individual teacher in the course of his work, and exemplified by the occurrences in his class room. The individual teacher can do much in this direction, and indeed the writer may say that probably the most important part of his instruction during the past thirty-five years has been teaching his students how to study and how to think logically, by constant reiteration of principles in the class room and by making any failure on the part of a student the occasion for pointing out how such failure arose from improper methods of study or reasoning. Nevertheless, it has seemed to the writer desirable to formulate, in a brief but simple manner, certain fundamental principles which he has been in the habit of pointing out in the class room, and that such a statement might perhaps be found useful with students of any grade as a set subject of study in itself, occupying one or more lessons. With this object in view, the present paper has been written, and it is hoped that it will prove useful to teachers as well as to students, suggesting to the former directions in which they may seek to discover defects in their students and in which they may urge improvement. Most students desire to learn but do not know how. A student will frequently answer a question correctly, perhaps in the words of the book, but upon further probing the teacher will very likely find that he fails entirely to understand what he is talking about. The teacher should seek to discover if such is the case and should, if practicable, point out the cause of the trouble. The writer believes that if the students in our colleges will read this paper carefully and thoughtfully, and will endeavor to follow its precepts, they will derive some benefit. If such proves to be the case, and if this paper affords help in enabling students to save time and to study more understandingly, the aim of the writer will have been accomplished. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 I. THE PROPER MENTAL ATTITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 (a) Distinction between reading and understanding . . . . 8 (b) Distinction between facts, opinions, and logical conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 (c) Importance of the questioning habit . . . . . . . . . 11 (d) Inquiring into methods of ascertaining facts . . . . 14 (e) Studying evidence of reliability of a writer . . . . 15 (f) Importance of caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 (g) Importance of the scientific attitude of mind . . . . 19 (h) Intellectual modesty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 (i) Wisdom rather than knowledge the aim . . . . . . . . 21 II. STUDYING UNDERSTANDINGLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 (a) Importance of definite ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 (1) Use of the dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (2) Practice in definition . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 (3) Importance of the study of logic . . . . . . . 28 (b) Stating a thing in different ways . . . . . . . . . . 31 (c) Stating a thing negatively as well as positively . . 32 (d) Observation of necessary qualifying words or phrases 34 {v} {vi} {vii} {ix} (e) Reflection, illustration, and application . . . . . . 35 (f) Keeping the mind active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 (g) Study of causes of differences of opinion . . . . . . 40 (h) Discrimination of mere assertion from proof . . . . . 40 III. SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 (a) Importance of grasping the fundamental idea . . . . . 42 (b) Preliminary arrangement of ideas . . . . . . . . . . 44 (c) Classification and arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . 45 IV. MENTAL INITIATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 (a) Interest in subject of study essential . . . . . . . 48 (b) Formulation of problem essential . . . . . . . . . . 49 (c) Independent work essential . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 (d) Drawing conclusions independent of author . . . . . 51 (e) Independence in arriving at conclusions . . . . . . 52 (f) Generalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 (g) Going beyond the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 (h) Visualizing results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 V. HABITS OF WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 (a) Selection of book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 (b) Proper number of subjects to be studied at once . . 55 (c) Haste undesirable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 (d) Taking studies seriously . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 (e) Judicious skipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 (f) Systematic program of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 (g) Cultivation of concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 (h) Applying what is learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 (i) Avoidance of indifference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 (j) Thorough knowledge of a few books . . . . . . . . . 58 (k) List of references should be made . . . . . . . . . 59 (l) Frequent reviews desirable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 (m) Regular times for recreative study . . . . . . . . . 60 (n) Physical exercise essential . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 IMPORTANCE OF REFUSING TO BE DISCOURAGED, AND OF SEEKING THE WORK ONE CAN DO BEST . . . . . 63 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 HOW TO STUDY "For the end of education and training is to help nature to her perfection in the complete development of all the various powers."—Richard Mulcaster, 1522-1611. Education is an opportunity, nothing more. It will not guarantee success, or happiness, or contentment, or riches. Everything depends upon what development is produced by it and what use is made of it. It does not mean morality or usefulness. It may make a man more capable of doing harm in the world, for an educated scoundrel is clearly more dangerous than an ignorant one. Properly employed, however, and combined with high character, with a due regard for the rights of others, and with simple and practicable but high ideals, it should help a man very greatly in making himself of service in the world and so in making his life really successful in the highest sense. What the student gets out of his education depends largely upon what he puts into it. The student is not an empty vessel to be pumped full of learning; he is a complex machine which education should help to run properly. The aim of education is purely utilitarian, and is expressed more clearly by the word power than by any other. Its object is to give the man power to meet the problems of life, and to develop all his faculties to the greatest degree. The word "utilitarian," however, is to be interpreted in its broadest sense. It is not simply bread-and-butter utility that is aimed at. Whatever makes a man more capable of legitimate enjoyment, or helps to make him contented and happy, or to enlarge his breadth of view, is really useful and helps to give him power. "The true order of learning should be first, what is necessary; second, what is useful; and third, what is ornamental. To reverse this arrangement is like beginning to build at the top of the edifice." The only way that power and strength can be developed is by effort on the part of the student. The only real education is self-education. The best that the teacher can do for the student is to show him what he can do for himself {x} {1} {2} and how he can do it. "If little labor, little are our gains; Man's fortunes are according to his pains." But labor alone will not produce gains unless properly and intelligently directed. Misdirected labor, though honest and well-intentioned, may lead to naught; just as any virtue, such for instance, as perseverance, if misdirected or misapplied, or in the wrong proportion, may become a vice. Hegel's dictum that anything carried to its extreme tends to become its opposite, has profound significance. A student may work hard and earnestly in school or college and yet accomplish little or nothing. He should, therefore, be made to see—not only the necessity for hard work, and how to work—but also how to work effectively. Among the most important things, then, for a student to learn, is how to study. Without a knowledge of this his labor may be largely in vain. He may pass his examinations and yet know nothing thoroughly and have little power. The importance of knowing how to study is evident when we realize that the amount of knowledge that a student can acquire in college, compared with the whole mass of human knowledge, even that bearing upon a single specialty, is entirely insignificant; and furthermore, that a student is generally quite unable to foresee with any degree of correctness what his work in life will be. Unless, therefore, his education has enabled him to take up a new subject or a new problem and to study and master it himself—that is to say, unless he has learned how to study, how to use his mind properly and to direct it efficiently upon the subject in hand—his education may have benefited him little and may not have fitted him for the career in which he finally finds himself. Important as it is to learn how to study, it is singular that most students do not learn it, and that little effort is made to teach it. It is assumed that children know how to study because they have brains. Probably a large majority of our college graduates today have not learned how to study properly, and find it difficult or impossible to take up a new study and master it. They have only learned how to do certain routine things in a mechanical way. They have learned by rote. It is with the hope of emphasizing this subject and of calling attention to some rules for proper study, that this article has been written. In its broadest sense, the question to be considered is, "How to Investigate a Problem." In doing this the first step is to get together all available information regarding the problem, including books, experimental data and results of experience, and to consider and digest this material. Personal investigations and inquiry, further experimental research, correspondence, travel, etc., may then be necessary. This will be based, however, in general, upon a study of books, and with this part of the subject we are here particularly concerned. Let us, therefore, consider the elements requisite for a proper method of study. I THE PROPER MENTAL ATTITUDE The first essential is that the student should have the proper mental attitude. That attitude should not be one of subservience, of blind believing, but should be one of mental courage and determination. His object is to understand the subject, not simply to read a book. If the book is a proper one for him to read, that is to say, if he has the proper preparation, and requisite mental power, then he is capable of mastering it. He is to master the book, the book is not to master him. He is to learn what the writer of the book thinks in matters of opinion, but he is never to accept such views blindly, and is to believe them only when he sees them to be true. Many students accept blindly as truth whatever they see on a printed page that they are required to read. To do this, even if what is read be remembered, is to study by rote; it makes a routine, rule-of-thumb man, who merely imitates or copies. He should realize that nothing is true simply because it is in a book, but should accept it only when it passes the test of his own understanding. Mental courage, therefore, is essential for a proper method of study, without which the student will become little more than a parrot. He must possess self-confidence, a consciousness of his power to master the subject, and a firm determination to master it. Of course, nobody should read a book that he is incapable of mastering or unprepared to understand. A suitable preparation and sufficient mental power are of course essential, and are here assumed. The point is that the sense of his own power and the determination to use it should be constantly in his mind. Students are of course frequently, if not generally, limited in the time which they have available for any given lesson, and they may not be able to follow out completely the methods recommended in this paper. It may therefore be necessary for a student frequently to accept a statement which he reads, although he is not at the time able to see the {3} {4} {5} {6} {7} reason for it. In all cases, however, he should endeavor to perceive whether it is a mere fact or definition, or whether it has a reason, and if he cannot at the time understand the reason he should accept the statement only tentatively, making a note of it as something which he must return to and study further if he wishes thoroughly to master the subject. (a) THE STUDENT MUST DISTINGUISH CLEARLY BETWEEN READING AND UNDERSTANDING. —Reading alone, no matter how extensive, or how retentive the memory, will not give wisdom or power. "Who reads Incessantly, and to his reading brings not A spirit and judgment equal or superior Uncertain and unsettled still remains, Deep versed in books, and shallow in himself." No doubt every one finds himself at times reading merely words or phrases without understanding them, reflecting about them, or translating them into terms which are intelligible to his understanding. Such reading is worse than useless; it leads to actual mental injury. Whenever we find ourselves doing this we should therefore arouse ourselves, make an effort of will, and concentrate our attention upon the subject, insisting upon understanding it. If for any reason we are unable to do this, we should close the book, take some exercise or recreation, or at any rate do something else, for we are not at the moment fitted for study. We might as well eat sawdust and deceive ourselves with thinking that we are taking nourishment. It is not what is read or what is remembered, but only what is understood, that gives power, "In this quest of knowledge ... there are two faults to be shunned—one, the taking of unknown things for known, and giving an assent to them too hastily, which fault he who wishes to escape (and all ought so to wish) will give time and diligence to reflect on the subjects proposed for his consideration. The other fault is that some bestow too great zeal and too much labor on things obscure and difficult, and at the same time useless."—Cicero: de Officiis. (b) THE STUDENT MUST CLEARLY DISTINGUISH MERE FACTS FROM CONCLUSIONS OR OPINIONS.—Mere facts, some of which may be the result of laborious investigation, may be accepted without verification, if the authority is good. When the student reads that the river Nile rises in Equatorial Africa, flows in a northerly direction through Egypt into the Mediterranean sea, he cannot verify this statement nor reason out that it must be so. It is a mere fact and a name, and he simply accepts it, perhaps looking at the map to fix the fact in his mind. So, too, if he reads that the atomic weight of oxygen is 16, or that a cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds, he cannot be expected to perform the experiments necessary to verify these statements. If he were to do this throughout his reading, he would have to make all the investigations made in the subject since man has studied it, taking no advantage of the labor of others. Very different are conclusions or opinions deduced from facts; and logical conclusions are very different from mere opinions. The facts may be sufficient to prove logically a certain conclusion. On the other hand, the facts may simply give reasonable ground, or appear to give reasonable ground, for a certain opinion, though they may fall far short of demonstration. The student must, therefore, discriminate constantly between mere statements of facts, necessary conclusions which follow therefrom, and mere opinions which they seem to render reasonable. Some conclusions also, like those of mathematics or logic, may be arrived at by the unaided reason without the previous accumulation of facts deduced from experiments or observation. Such truths or conclusions should be distinguished from those which are based upon facts, experiments or observation. If the student reads, therefore, that the sum of the angles of a plane triangle is equal to two right angles, he should see that this is not a mere fact, but an inevitable truth, the reason for which he should perceive, and not accept simply because he reads it. The continual exercise of this discrimination, which comes from an attitude of mental courage and independence, is an essential of proper study. (c) THE STUDENT'S MIND SHOULD BE A CONTINUAL INTERROGATION POINT.[ 1]—He should always ask himself, regarding any statement which he reads, whether there is a reason for it, and if there is, whether it is inherent in the nature of things, so that he might independently arrive at it, or whether it follows from facts which the writer has observed. For instance, there is at first sight no reason why a cubic foot of water should weigh 62.4 pounds. It simply does and that is all there is to it; it does, because it does. But if he reads that a cubic foot of water at one point on the earth's surface weighs less than it does at another point, or that in the Northern Hemisphere the wind in a storm revolves around the storm center in a direction contrary to the motion of the hands of a clock, he should perceive that these facts, if true, have a reason for them, and he should endeavor to perceive that reason. It must be observed at this point that, strictly speaking, there must be a reason for any truth, even for what we may term mere facts, excepting those which are mere definitions. There is some reason, lying in the constitution and arrangement of its atoms, why a cubic foot of water at a given spot and at a given temperature weighs 62.4 pounds. But there is no reason why New York is 90 miles from Philadelphia; those two points 90 miles apart are simply so named or defined. Many truths which are accepted as mere facts, the explanation being unknown, in the course of time are {8} {9} {10} {11} {12} explained by the progress of science. Thus, for many years the fact that a magnetic needle pointed toward the North was a mere unexplained fact, but later the reason was discovered. The same is true of the fact that the pollution of drinking water by sewage may cause typhoid fever. The point is that the student must continually discriminate, continually inquire, and, as he reads, keep a list of points, the reason for which he cannot then discover, but which he perceives must have a discoverable reason. He should not go too deeply into this, but should preserve his sense of proportion; for if he follows every possible line of inquiry back to its source he will progress but slowly. Thus, if he is studying descriptive astronomy and reads that the sun is ninety-two million miles from the earth, or that Jupiter has nine moons, or that the star Sirius is moving away from the earth with a velocity of eleven miles per second, or that the moon always turns the same half toward the earth, he should perceive that he cannot at that stage try to get back of these facts, but he may well make a note of them as questions to be later examined, if not as to the cause, at least as to how the fact is ascertained. It does not follow that he should never leave the subject until he has found a reason, for it may depend upon facts or principles of which he is not at the moment informed; but if such is the case, he should accept the fact tentatively, but make a mental note that it is something which clearly must have a reason which he is capable of perceiving, and which he will look up at some future time. In studying his book he may well make a list of such questions to ask the teacher or to look up later. Students must of course proceed in a systematic way, and a student who has not studied physics cannot be expected to perceive reasons that depend upon the laws of physics, and yet without a knowledge of physics he may still perceive that a statement is not of a mere fact, but of something that must have a reason. To primitive peoples nature was a closed book. The simplest phenomena were beyond their understanding, and they, therefore, imagined deities of whose personal activities these phenomena were supposed to be manifestations. With the progress of science many phenomena once mysterious and looked upon as facts have become easily explained. The intelligent student, however, can generally distinguish between statements of the different kinds which have been described, and he should constantly endeavor to explain or seek the reason for new statements by relating them to the body of knowledge which he has previously gained. Unfortunately, the average student reads only to accept what is written, whether fact, conclusion, or opinion, perhaps memorizing it verbatim under the impression that by so doing he is learning; he does not examine or reflect upon it, and often even accepts as facts what are explicitly stated to be mere expressions of opinion. Thus palpable mistakes, or even typographical errors, which a careful student should detect at once, are often accepted and believed. It is for this reason that it is so easy to deceive most people, at least for part of the time. They do not think for themselves, and all that is necessary to make them believe what you say is in some way to get them to think you are an authority. (d) REGARDING FACTS WHICH HE DOES NOT THEN INVESTIGATE THE REASON FOR, HE SHOULD ASK How THEY ARE ASCERTAINED.—This will draw his attention to methods of observation and experiment, or to the technique of the subject. How, for instance, is it ascertained that New York is 90 miles from Philadelphia, or that the sun is ninety-two million miles from the earth? It is always possible to ascertain, at least in a general way, how a fact is ascertained, though it may not be possible to determine the reason for the fact. This applies not alone to physical sciences, but to questions of an economic, historic or sociological character. If we read that at the Battle of Gettysburg 3072 Union soldiers were killed, we do not inquire why; such a question is clearly meaningless; but we may well inquire how this was ascertained, whether by counting the dead upon the field or by the roll call, etc.; or if we read that following the issue of large quantities of paper currency during the Civil War, the amount of gold in the country decreased, we may in this case also inquire how it was ascertained, and we may further perceive that this is a fact for which there must be a reason, and we may then or later ascertain why it is true. (e) THE STUDENT MUST TRAIN HIMSELF TO BE CONSTANTLY ON THE WATCH FOR EVIDENCE OF RELIABILITY IN THE WRITER HE IS STUDYING, IN ORDER THAT HE MAY GET A CORRECT IMPRESSION AS TO WHETHER HIS STATEMENTS OF FACT MAY BE ACCEPTED, AS WELL AS HIS CONCLUSIONS AND OPINIONS.—Many writers are careless, some are entirely unreliable, and some wilfully distort. Not only are the opinions sometimes expressed entirely unwarranted by the facts, but often statements of mere fact, such as those of statistics, may be grossly perverted, sometimes intentionally. Erroneous conclusions or opinions which are the result of illogical reasoning from correct facts may be discovered by the student who himself knows how to reason, but perversions of fact may escape detection, if not traced back to original authorities or observations, which the student may not have time or opportunity to do. Statistical results, or statements made in books on economics, history, and sociology, are particularly liable to distortion, intentionally or unintentionally. Indeed by selecting certain statistics and excluding others, almost anything depending upon statistics may be proved. The importance is thus obvious of being able to detect signs of reliability and accuracy, and of discarding a writer who cannot be depended upon. It is also important to make it a rule to ask whether any result when reached appears to be reliable in the light of common sense. Sometimes a suggestion of error will be observed if the subject is looked at in this light, which if traced back will lead to the discovery of some mistake in observation or some error in reasoning. {13} {14} {15} {16} {17} Evidence of unreliability shown by a writer may generally be discovered, if care is exercised. His temperament, age, environment, training, religion and other facts will contribute. One who is dogmatic or abusive in stating what are obviously mere opinions which cannot be demonstrated, or who is intolerant of those who reach different conclusions, is obviously by temperament untrustworthy. A writer who in a single instance can be shown to have intentionally distorted facts should, of course, be at once and forever rejected;[2] one who has distorted facts unintentionally may perhaps be forgiven once. So a writer who, in a matter not capable of mathematical demonstration, and to some extent a matter of opinion, sets out to prove a preconceived idea, shows himself in general not possessed of the qualities which should inspire confidence. By these and other tests the student should constantly be on the watch to form his opinion of the credibility and reliability of a writer or experimenter whose work he is studying. He may thus guide himself as to the books which he should pursue carefully, remembering the dictum of Bacon that "Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested," except that very few, if any, are to be literally swallowed without digestion. By careful observance of the injunction to study constantly the credibility of a writer one may become what may be termed a discriminating student. (f) ANOTHER ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF A PROPER ATTITUDE OF MIND IS CAUTION.—Always realize the possibility of error both in another and in yourself. Be on your guard against intentional or unintentional deception. As Bacon said, "Read not to contradict and to confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider."[3] The author you are reading may have made a mistake, or may be trying to mislead you. "When we think of the difficulty of finding the way, when we are most desirous to go right, how easy to mislead those whom we wish to go wrong!" Be, therefore, always suspicious of your author, and subject all his statements to the test of your own intelligence.[4] (g) STUDY WITH AN OPEN MIND, AND WITH NO PRECONCEIVED IDEAS.—Cultivate the scientific attitude of mind, which means, first to formulate clearly a problem, then to get together all the pertinent facts, and then to draw the logical conclusions. Be ready to accept gladly any logical conclusion from the facts, even if unpalatable. Truth is, or should be, the sole object of study.[5] (h) BE MODEST INTELLECTUALLY, YET SELF-RELIANT. TRAIN YOURSELF TO LOVE CORRECTION.—Remember these sayings from wise men: "Whoso loveth correction loveth knowledge; But he that hateth reproof is brutish." —Proverbs. "Poverty and shame shall be to him that refuseth correction; But he that regardeth reproof shall be honoured." —Proverbs. "The beginning of wisdom is the knowledge of one's faults." —Epicurus. "He that being often reproved hardeneth his neck Shall suddenly be broken, and that without remedy." —Proverbs. "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee; Reprove a wise man and he will love thee." —Proverbs. "Be not wise in thine own eyes."—Proverbs. "The true beginning of wisdom is the desire of discipline." —Wisdom of Solomon. "Censure and criticism never hurt anybody. If false they can't hurt you unless you are wanting in manly character; and if true, they show a man his weak points, and forewarn him against failure and trouble."—Gladstone. "If there's anything worse than knowing too little, it's knowing too much. Education will broaden a narrow mind, but there's no cure for a big head. The best you can hope is that it will swell up and bust, and then, of course, there's nothing left. Poverty never spoils a good man, but prosperity often does. It's easy to stand hard times, because that's the only thing you can do, but in good times the fool-killer has to do night work."—Lorimer: Letters from a Self-made Merchant to his Son at College. {18} {19} {20} Intellectual modesty is quite consistent with self-reliance and mental courage. The study of books too often leads to intellectual arrogance, which is the surest bar to real mental progress. Realize the limitations of your own knowledge; see clearly what you know and what you do not know, otherwise you will see the things you know out of proportion. Make sure, however, that you know the fundamentals. Socrates said that a knowledge of our ignorance is the first step toward true knowledge, and a Persian proverb says: "He who knows not, and knows not that he knows not, is a fool; shun him. He who knows not, and knows that he knows not, is a child; teach him. He who knows, and knows not that he knows, is asleep; wake him. He who knows, and knows that he knows, is wise; follow him." Ask yourself, which of these classes you belong to. (i) REMEMBER THAT THE OBJECT OF STUDY SHOULD BE TO GAIN WISDOM, RATHER THAN KNOWLEDGE.—Facts are important and must be learned; but far more important is it to gain wisdom and to train the mind and judgment so that truth may be distinguished from error. As the poet says: "Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom, in minds attentive to their own. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much, Wisdom is humble that he knows no more." The above points all have to do with the mental attitude of the student, and may be summarized by simply stating that the student must be possessed of mental courage, self-reliance, discrimination, modesty, and caution, all in proper proportion. [1] "He that questioneth much shall learn much."—Bacon. [2] "Mendax in uno praesumitur mendax in alio." [3] "There are always people ready to assume that things are what they are called, because it is much easier to deal with names than to examine facts."—Bryce: South America. [4] "A wise man knows an ignorant one, because he has been ignorant himself, but the ignorant cannot recognize the wise, because he has never been wise."—Persian Proverb. [5] "Table talk proves that nine out of ten people read what amuses them, rather than what instructs them, and proves also, that the last thing they read is something which tells them disagreeable truths or dispels groundless hopes. That popular education results in an extensive reading of publications which foster pleasant illusions rather than of those which insist on hard realities, is beyond question."—Spencer: The Coming Slavery. II STUDYING UNDERSTANDINGLY The second essential which may be named, connected with the first, and already mentioned, but now to be discussed, is that the student should understand what he reads. This may seem almost a needless injunction, yet it is very surprising how commonly it is disregarded. It is, however, easy to understand why this should be so. A child, as it grows up, must gain all its knowledge either by the exercise of its own reasoning powers or from its senses. How does it learn the meaning of words? Certain nouns like "papa" or "cat" it may easily be made to understand by pointing at the object referred to and uttering the word, but how does it learn the meaning of abstract nouns, or of verbs and other parts of speech which cannot be illustrated by pantomime? It is almost inevitable that the child should use many words the meaning of which it does not understand, and when young children in school recite poetry at class-day exercises, it is almost certain that they do not understand the meaning of many of the words they use. Thus, it happens that they come into the habit of using words and phrases without carefully examining their meanings. This tendency should be counteracted from the earliest stage. The child should be continually asked the meanings of words which it uses, and {21} {22} {23} should be encouraged itself to inquire as to those meanings and to take the proper mental attitude. The use of the dictionary should be insisted upon even from an early age, the object being to avoid the formation of the habit of using words or phrases unintelligently, which is one of the worst habits that one can acquire. Professor James, in his interesting book, "Talks to Teachers," illustrates this habit by an amusing anecdote: "A friend of mine visiting a school, was asked to examine a young class in geography. Glancing at the book, she said: 'Suppose you should dig a hole in the ground, hundreds of feet deep, how should you find it at the bottom—warmer or colder than on top?' None of the class replying, the teacher said: 'I'm sure they know, but I think you don't ask the question quite rightly. Let me try.' So, taking the book, she asked: 'In what condition is the interior of the globe?' and received the immediate answer from half the class at once; 'The interior of the globe is in a condition of igneous fusion!'" Perhaps it may be thought that an incident like the foregoing would only occur in an elementary school. As a matter of fact, college students and graduates, and indeed most of us, do this very thing more often than we realize, even in subjects like mathematics or mechanics; and terms like "energy," "momentum," "rate of change," "period of vibration," "value," "social justice," etc., are often used without a clear understanding, and sometimes without any understanding at all, of what they mean. (a) THE STUDENT SHOULD ACQUIRE AND INSIST UPON EXERCISING THE HABIT OF FORMING DEFINITE IDEAS.—This is one of the most important injunctions to be observed as an essential principle of intelligent study.[1] It is self-evident that facts or things cannot be reasoned about intelligently unless a definite idea is formed of the facts or things themselves. Vagueness of idea not alone precludes a proper conception of the thing itself, but may vitiate all reasoning regarding it. The student must resolutely make up his mind that he must not rest satisfied with hazy, uncertain, half-formed ideas. A half knowledge of a thing may not be useless, but it is generally found that it is the other half that is needed. If the student could learn this one precept and continually apply it, he would have little difficulty in studying properly. It is not easy to state just how the habit of forming definite ideas may be acquired. To a certain extent it is intuitive. Some students have it, while others do not; some can cultivate it, while others apparently cannot. It is probably safe to say, however, that a student who cannot cultivate it should not study books, or enter into a profession, but should go to work with his hands instead of taking a college course. Such a man will be always likely to be misled, his conclusions can never be depended upon, and what we term education may do him harm rather than good. A definite idea is one that leaves no room for ambiguity—which means just one thing. The habit of forming such ideas habitually may be cultivated in several ways, as for instance: 1. STUDY THE DICTIONARY.—By study of the dictionary, the student may train himself to distinguish slight differences in meaning between words, and habitually to use precisely the word with the proper meaning to express his idea. A knowledge of the derivation of words will often assist, and such books as Archbishop Trench's on "The Study of Words," or a course in English composition under a good teacher, accompanied by exercises in expression, will all contribute to the formation of the habit.[2] Sometimes, however, the dictionary may give little assistance, for it may be found that one term is defined by means of another and on looking up that other, it will be found to be defined by means of the first. Sometimes also a definition of a word will be given in terms even more difficult to understand than the one which is defined. There are differences in dictionaries. The study of language, and particularly of the classics, if properly pursued, may be of great benefit, because it involves translating from one language into another, and should include much practice in discovering the precise word or phrase to express an idea. The reason why a study of the classics may be better than that of modern foreign languages, is that in studying the latter the object is more often considered—by the student at least—to become able to read professional books in a modern language, or to get a smattering which will be of use in travel or in business; while in the study of the classics these objects are entirely absent, and the attention is more apt to be concentrated on studying delicate shades of meaning. However, everything depends upon the teacher and the way the subject is taught.[3] 2. The habit of forming definite ideas may also be cultivated by each day attempting to define a certain number of common words, and after making as good a definition as possible comparing the result with that in the dictionary. If the student will practise this, he will at first receive many surprises, for any word may be defined in various ways, all correct as far as they go, but only one of which is a true definition. For instance, a cow may be defined as a four-legged animal, but this, while correct, obviously does not define a cow, for the same definition would apply to many other animals that are not cows. What constitutes a definition? This subject is clearly allied with the discussion of the question as to what constitutes perfect knowledge; what elements, for instance, go to make up what may be called a perfect conception of a thing. According to Liebnitz, perfect knowledge is clear, distinct, adequate, and intuitive. The student will do well to look up the discussion of this subject in {24} {25} {26} {27} {28} Jevon's "Elementary Lessons in Logic" (Lesson VII). The importance of forming definite ideas, as an essential of proper study, and of understanding what is read, cannot be exaggerated. Without it one cannot acquire more than a partial knowledge, and one is always liable to those errors of reasoning which arise from the use of equivocal language, which may lead us unconsciously from one meaning of a word to another—a logical error which is perhaps the most fruitful cause of fallacious reasoning. 3. STUDY LOGIC.—Logic is the science of correct reasoning. It teaches us how to discover truth, how to recognize it when discovered, how to arrive at general laws from facts collected by observation or experiment, and how to deduce new facts from those already found to be true. It is thus the science of sciences, and finds its application in every branch of knowledge. The training of his power of logical thought is, therefore, one of the things that should be constantly aimed at by the student. Now all thinking is concerned, first of all, with terms or names for things or qualities or conceptions of some sort. Then, it is concerned with comparisons of things, and the discovery of their identity or dissimilarity, as when I say "Iron is a metal" or "all metals are elements," each of which statements is a proposition, the truth or falsity of which I must be able to discover. Finally, it is concerned in deducing new propositions from old ones, and so arriving at new truths, as when I discover from the two propositions stated above, the new truth that "Iron is an element." But there are many chances for error in this process; for instance, I might say: "To call you an animal would be to state the truth"—to which you would agree; and, "To call you an ass would be to call you an animal"—to which you would also agree; from which I might conclude that, "To call you an ass would be to state the truth"—which you might have a vague idea was not true. If you wish to be sure that this conclusion is incorrect, you must be able to show just why it is incorrect. The study of logic would enable you to see just where the error lies. You must not be governed by vague ideas, or you will be intellectually at anybody's mercy. In the logical study of terms, they are classified and distinguished, and the importance made manifest of having in mind a clear definition of the meaning of a term before reasoning about it. Many terms are ambiguous, as already explained, and may mean many different things, as for instance the terms "bill," "church," "evil," "value," "social justice." Here, then, the importance of definite ideas will be manifest. Pascal laid down the essentials of logical method in the statement "Define everything and prove everything." In other words, do not attempt to think about a term until you have defined the term and have a clear idea what it means; and insist upon proving every statement at which you arrive, before accepting it finally and definitely; although for want of time, you may be obliged sometimes to accept or form a conclusion tentatively or provisionally. You may be able to draw correct conclusions from stated premises even though you do not understand the terms of the premises. For instance, if I say, "Selenium is a dyad element" and "A dyad element is one capable of replacing two equivalents of hydrogen," I can correctly draw the conclusion that, "Selenium is capable of replacing two equivalents of hydrogen," but I cannot know that the conclusion is correct unless I understand the meaning of the terms in the premises and so can be sure of the correctness of those premises. Every student should, therefore, in the writer's opinion, take a systematic course in logic, or carefully study by himself such books as Jevons' "Elementary Lessons in Logic" or John Stuart Mill's "Logic."[4] (b) LEARN TO STATE A THING IN DIFFERENT WAYS OR FROM DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW.— Almost anything may be looked at from different points of view, or a truth stated in different ways, and it may appear very different from different viewpoints. A student should practise doing this, first stating a principle perhaps from the mathematical point of view, and then in simple untechnical language that can be understood by one who is not a mathematician. The habit of stating even technical matters in simple untechnical language should be practised continually. As Bishop Berkeley urged, we should "think with the learned and speak with the vulgar." If you clearly understand a proposition, you can state it in clear and unambiguous language, though perhaps not in Addisonian English. Students frequently say "I understand that, but I cannot explain it." Such a student deceives himself: he does not understand it. If he understands it thoroughly, he can explain it clearly and without ambiguity, and so that others will understand him. For this reason an acute observer can get the mental measure of a man after a few minutes' conversation. Inaccurate or slipshod thinking will surely show itself in speech. (c) STATE A THING NOT ONLY POSITIVELY BUT NEGATIVELY.—That is to say, state not only what it is, but what it is not, even if incompletely. Perceive not only what it includes, but what it excludes. When a result or a principle is arrived at, it is essential not only to see that it is true, but how far the reverse is untrue. The student does not really understand a thing unless he recognizes it from any point of view, can describe it from any point of view, can state it in language to suit the particular emergency, and can see why the other thing is untrue. As Aristotle says: {29} {30} {31} {32} {33} "We must not only state the truth, but the cause of the untrue statement; this is an element in our belief; for when it is made apparent why a statement not true appears to be true, our belief in the truth is confirmed." In other words, we must analyze every statement which is the result of reasoning, or a statement of opinion, and see what objections, if any, can be brought against it, and then convince ourselves where the truth lies and why. The lawyer has excellent practice in doing this, for in making his own argument he is obliged to scrutinize it closely to discover what objections he would make to it, if he were the counsel on the opposite side. The lawyer, however, does not always limit himself to the discovery of the truth, but often seeks to discover and bring to bear unsound but plausible arguments to refute the other side; and by his skill in dialectics he may often deliberately "make the worse appear the better reason." The student of mathematics, on the other hand, does not gain in that study much practice in weighing evidence or seeking objections to an argument, for he deals with principles which are rigid and not open to question. Professor Palmer, in his interesting book, "The Problem of Freedom," says: "Until we understand the objection to any line of thought, we do not understand that thought; nor can we feel the full force of such objections until we have them urged upon us by one who believes them." This is precisely what the advocate endeavors to do beforehand, and in the court room he is very sure to have the objections to his line of thought urged upon him and the jury by one who at all events appears to believe them. (d) IN STUDYING A STATEMENT, OBSERVE WHICH ARE THE NECESSARY WORDS AND WHETHER THERE ARE ANY UNNECESSARY ONES WHICH MIGHT BE OMITTED.—For instance, in the following sentence, "When a force acts upon a body, and the point of application of the force moves in the direction of the line of action of the force, the force is said to do work on the body," what is the necessity and significance of the qualifying phrase "in the direction of the line of action of the force?" Are these words necessary, or could they be omitted? Note whether another word could be substituted for one used, without rendering a statement incorrect, or whether such change would improve it and make it more accurate. For instance, in the definition "Matter is that which can occupy space" would it be proper to substitute "does" for "can" or "occupies" for "can occupy"? Note what word or words should be emphasized in order to convey the intended meaning. In the sentence "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor," several widely different meanings may be conveyed according to the word which is emphasized. Students frequently seem to lack all sense of proportion and fail to acquire definite ideas because they do not see the meaning or necessity of qualifying words or phrases, or because they do not perceive where the emphasis should be placed. (e) REFLECT UPON WHAT IS READ: ILLUSTRATE AND APPLY A RESULT AFTER REACHING IT, BEFORE PASSING ON TO SOMETHING ELSE.[ 5]—Apply it to cases entirely different from those shown in the book, and try to observe how generally it is applicable. Do not leave it in the abstract. An infallible test of whether you understand what you have read is your ability to apply it, particularly to cases entirely different from those used in the book. An abstract idea or result not illustrated or applied concretely is like food undigested; it is not assimilated, and it soon passes from the system. In illustrating, so far as time permits, the student should use pencil and paper, if the case deman...