Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(11): 1970-1976, 2017 http://www.hrpub.org DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2017.051113 Comparative Study of Sport Mental Toughness between Soccer Officials Bülent Okan Miçooğulları1,*, Hayrettin Gümüşdağ2, Uğur Ödek1, Özkan Beyaz1 1Faculty of Education, Department of Physical Education & Sports, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Turkey 2Physical Education & Sports High School, Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey Copyright©2017 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License Abstract Gucciardi et al. (2009) [1] suggest that mental lot of research has been conducted on various aspects of this toughness is more a function of environment than domains, sport. One of the unique aspects of soccer is that people play and as such, mental toughness is potentially important in any many roles. Presumably, a coach, player, and referee from environment that requires performance setting, challenges, the soccer have a common knowledge base (e.g. declarative and adversities. Due to vital importance of mental toughness knowledge about the aims and general performance within in sports and particularly in soccer, this paper focused on the that sport), but are often required to perform different tasks comparison of sport mental toughness levels of soccer within the context of this sport [2]. Coaches, players and officials with their age group, education level, refereeing referees try to reach a comprehensive understanding of category and sports experience years. Mental toughness was parameters related to successful athletic performance [3]. checked by Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire However, most of the sport psychology research has focused (SMTQ). The SMTQ was applied to soccer officials (159 to examine mostly athletes’ psychological performance licensed referees) who all were registered to the Turkish excellence and other contexts are neglected. Officials are Football Federation (TFF). The sample consisted of 146 crucial in the soccer, because without them, it would be male subjects, mean age was 29.10 years (SD = 7.54, range = impossible to develop of the competition of soccer [4]. 19–54) and 13 female subjects mean age was 22.82 years Therefore, officials’ psychological performance should also (SD = 4.71, range = 19–27). To determine the difference of be considered as an area of further exploration. Sport Mental Toughness level among soccer referees Officiating requires knowledge, experience, competence, One-Way ANOVA was used for normal distribution and good personality, optimum performance, and concentration. Scheffé Test was used for determining the differences across Also it requires quick and accurate response which means groups with through SPSS Package 21.0 and the significant officials often have to make decisions under intense time level was set at 0.05. The findings of this research paper pressure that may have a substantial impact on the outcome showed that there were significant differences between of a game. Officiating activity can be influenced by a number soccer officials’ three sub-factors (confidence – constancy - of essential characteristics such as: a good knowledge of the control) of mental toughness and their officiating experience rules, a good physical form and an adequate position in the years. This could be attributed to the fact that 15 and above field of play in each [5], as well as adequate visual and years experienced officials were mentally tougher than those auditory acuity [6]. However, such characteristics are not with 0-5 years’ experience and those with 6-10 years’ enough to achieve a complete performance. In fact, experience. There were not any significant differences psychological variables also play a key role in reaching the between other variables (refereeing categories, education expected refereeing performance [7]. levels and age groups) of soccer officials and their mental Based on the above, it is considered a priority to evaluate toughness levels. the different psychological variables that significantly affect Keywords Sport Psychology, Mental Toughness, Soccer, the officials’ performance. Psychological variables help Officials (Referees) officials activate their energy to achieve maximum performance [8]. When examining psychological variables and their effects on performance important to consider mental toughness as one of the variables. The most commonly used definition for mental toughness was 1. Introduction developed by Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton (2002) [9]. Soccer is one of the most popular sports worldwide and a Mental toughness is, “having the natural or developed Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(11): 1970-1976, 2017 1971 psychological edge that enables you to generally, cope better 2. Methodology than your opponents with the many demands (competition, training, lifestyle) that sport places on a performer. 2.1. Participants Specifically, being more consistent and better than opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident, and The participants were 159 athletes who regularly refereed in control under pressure” (p. 213). a soccer game during the 2017 – 2018 soccer season in Furthermore, Gucciardi and colleagues have studied Turkey. A questionnaire was applied to those 159 soccer mental toughness in soccer - which is the core sport officials all of whom were registered to the Turkish Football discipline of the present study - and subsequently presented a Federation (TFF). The sample consisted of 146 male subjects, construct definition of mental toughness [10]: mean age was 29.10 years (SD = 7.54, range = 19–54) and 13 Mental toughness is the presence of some or the entire female subjects mean age was 22.82 years (SD = 4.71, range collection of experientially developed and inherent values, = 19–27). attitudes, emotions, cognitions, and behaviors that influence Participants’ soccer officiating was maintained at different the way in which an individual approaches, responds to, and levels: 81 (51%) refereed at District level, 32 (20%) at the appraises both negatively and positively construed pressures, Classification Assistant level and 46 (29%) at C challenges, and adversities to consistently achieve his or her Classification Assistant Referee level. The responding goals (p. 715). officials had on the average been active as soccer officials at In a collective manner, it seems that although there are different durations: 52 (33%) between 0-5 years, 48 (30%) common attributes of mental toughness for a variety of sports between 6-10 years, 36 (23%) between 11-15 years and 23 and/or specific contexts (e.g. elite athletes, runners, hockey (15%) 16 years and above. All participants were fully players, soccer players, coaches, soccer referees), there are informed about the aims of the study, the procedures, and also specific attributes to each sport and the respective roles gave their voluntary consent before participation. played [7, 11, 12, 13, 14]. For example, Slack et al., (2012) have studied referees to understand mental toughness in 2.2. Measuring Instruments soccer officiating. For this aim, they have made interviews 2.2.1. Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ: with 15 elite referees to understand features that supported Sheard et al., 2009) excellent refereeing. In their study they found a group of mental toughness attributes relating to characteristics of The Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) is a excellent refereeing which include; (a) coping with pressure 14-item questionnaire established to ascertain athletes’ (e.g. looking calm and composed / awareness from own mental toughness levels. The SMTQ is an instrument that emotions), (b) robust self-belief (e.g. confidence own and measures three dimensions of mental toughness: confidence others’ abilities), (c) tough attitude (e.g. focus on (α = .80, 6 items), constancy (α = .74, 4 items), and control (α performance goals, consistent preparation), (d) high = .71, 4 items). Participants rated items on a four point Likert work-ethic (working hard to give 100 percent in every game), scale anchored by not true at all and very true. Higher (e) resilience (e.g. focus on decisions), (f) sport intelligence composite subscale scores reflect higher levels of each (e.g. having a position in a game, a feeling for the game), and dimension and higher scores a single composite score (g) achieving striving (e.g. take a lesson from game – reflects higher global mental toughness [16]. fighting for excellent refereeing) [7]. It is noteworthy that findings from Slack et al.’s (2012) study have been similar 2.3. Data Analysis with other studies’ findings aiming to reveal attributes of All statistical analyses were calculated by SPSS 21.0 mental toughness [15]. Those findings – mental toughness statistical package. Tests for normality were performed on attributes – are also considered to be specific attributes for the data with the Shapiro-Wilk test. All data were normally excellent soccer officiating. distributed. Data were presented as quantitative data and As explained previously, most of the studies highlighting expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). the importance of mental toughness were focused on and Demographic data were expressed using descriptive statistics. conducted with athletes. This focus, however, has caused a One way Anova was used to test differences in total mental number of flaws in those studies. For example, since those toughness across categories of soccer officials. studies mainly focused on athletes but there are other contexts involved in soccer (i.e. other responsible people and officials), many studies neglected the fact that mental 3. Results toughness can be important and necessary for those stakeholders as well. In the light of information presented so In this section, both descriptive and inferential statistics far and due to vital importance of mental toughness in sports, results are presented. One hundred fifty nine soccer officials the present study focuses on the comparison of mental completed the survey. The majority of participants were toughness between different category soccer referees. male 146 (92%); there were 13 female (8%). There were 49 1972 Comparative Study of Sport Mental Toughness between Soccer Officials participants (30%) between 19 and 24 years of age; 74 (47%) experience within soccer officiating. A one-way anova was participants between 25 and 34 years of age; 31 (20%) conducted to compare the effect of age groups of soccer participants between 35 and 44 years of age and 5 (3%) officials on their levels of mental toughness (Table 1). participants between 45 and 54 years of age. 51 % of the Mental toughness levels were calculated with its participants reported that they worked as a district level sub-dimensions’ averages and its total average. It was found referee; 20 % of them worked as a classification assistant that there was no statistically significant difference across referee and 29% of them worked as a C classification age groups of soccer officials participating in the study assistant referee. The majority of participants graduated from (p> .05). university (76.1%), 17% of them graduated from In Table 2, one-way anova was applied to investigate post-graduate education and only 7% of them graduated effect of different categories of soccer officials who from high school. The last independent variable of the study participated in the research are significantly different was refereeing experience years of the participants. Most of according to the mental toughness variable. It was found that them had 0-5 year experience in their job with 52 participants there was no statistically significant difference between (33%), 48 participants (30%) reported they had 6-10 year categories of soccer officials and their total mental toughness experience, 36 participants reported they had 11-15 year levels and its sub-dimensions (p> .05). experience, and 23 of them reported they had 15 – above year Table 1. A One-way ANOVA results between age groups and mental toughness levels. ANOVA Mean Sum of Squares df F Sig. Square Between Groups .58 3 .19 1.03 .38 Mental Toughness Within Groups 28.88 155 .19 Total 29.46 158 Between Groups 1.12 3 .37 .64 .59 Confidence Within Groups 89.94 155 .58 Total 91.05 158 Between Groups 1.02 3 .34 1.53 .21 Constancy Within Groups 34.48 155 .22 Total 35.50 158 Between Groups .87 3 .29 .44 .73 Control Within Groups 102.70 155 .66 Total 103.57 158 Table 2. A One-way ANOVA results between categories of officials and their mental toughness levels. ANOVA Sum of Mean df F Sig. Squares Square Between Groups .26 2 .13 .70 .50 Mental Toughness Within Groups 29.19 156 .18 Total 29.46 158 Between Groups .67 2 .33 .57 .56 Confidence Within Groups 90.39 156 .58 Total 91.05 158 Between Groups .63 2 .32 1.41 .25 Constancy Within Groups 34.87 156 .22 Total 35.50 158 Between Groups 1.52 2 .76 1.16 .32 Control Within Groups 102.05 156 .65 Total 103.57 158 Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(11): 1970-1976, 2017 1973 Table 3. A One-way ANOVA results between education level and mental toughness levels. ANOVA Sum of Mean df F Sig. Squares Square Between Groups .01 2 .01 .036 .97 Mental Toughness Within Groups 29.44 156 .19 Total 29.46 158 Between Groups 1.35 2 .68 1.17 .31 Confidence Within Groups 89.70 156 .58 Total 91.05 158 Between Groups .18 2 .09 .39 .68 Constancy Within Groups 35.32 156 .23 Total 35.50 158 Between Groups .88 2 .44 .67 .51 Control Within Groups 102.69 156 .66 Total 103.57 158 Table 4. A One-way ANOVA results between sports experience years and mental toughness levels. ANOVA Sum of Mean df F Sig. Squares Square Between Groups 4.479 3 1.49 5.96 .00 Mental Toughness Within Groups 37.977 155 .25 Total 29.456 158 Between Groups 6.51 3 2.17 3.98 .01 Confidence Within Groups 84.55 155 .55 Total 91.05 158 Between Groups 1.84 3 .62 2.83 .04 Constancy Within Groups 33.66 155 .22 Total 35.50 158 Between Groups 1.39 3 .46 .70 .55 Control Within Groups 102.18 155 .66 Total 103.57 158 A one-way anova was conducted to compare the effect of significantly higher than officials with both 0-5 years and education level of soccer officials on their levels of mental 6-10 years. However, they did not score significantly higher toughness (Table 3). It was found that there was no than officials with 11-15 years of experience in terms of total statistically significant difference between education levels mental toughness scores and confidence and constancy of soccer officials participating in the study and their mental scores. In other words, Scheffé post hoc comparisons toughness levels and its sub-dimensions (p> .05). showed that 15 years and above officials had higher scores A one-way anova was used to compare the effect of than both 0-5 years and 6-10 years soccer officials for officiating experience years (working years as a referee) of averages of total score of mental toughness, confidence and participants are significantly different according to the constancy. mental toughness (Table 4). It was found that –with the exception of the control sub-dimension- there was statistically significant difference between the sports 4. Discussion experience years of referees and their mental toughness level and sub-dimensions (confidence and constancy) (p< .05). In modern sports, mental toughness is a broadly used Scheffe test was used to determine which group had the expression. It is a factor, which differentiates the effective significant difference. According to the results of the study, it officials from the ineffective ones. Sports referees with can be noted that 15 years and above soccer officials scored mental toughness have the ability to improve their excellence 1974 Comparative Study of Sport Mental Toughness between Soccer Officials to the top level at crucial moments in a field. Scientists revealed that the national first-level referees have a level of started considering soccer referees as performers in their self-efficacy significantly higher than that of the regional working areas especially in recent years. The sport referees [23]. Moreover, Giske, Haugen & Johansen, (2016) excellence of elite referees depends on the benefit of using aimed to examine different category soccer officials’ levels the psychological abilities along with physical abilities [17]. about mental preparation to the matches. As they found, elite The influence of psychological factors on officiating officials report significantly greater use of mental training performance have enlarged nowadays, to such a degree that compared with sub-elite referees [24]. The results can be the officials point out that sports excellence cannot be speculated as upper category officials may get through the ensured by only raw physical abilities or features. Effective fact that the effects of mental development are not immediate usage of psychological skills allows officials to mobilize and instead require patience and persistence. their energy for maximum performance [18]. Last criterion variable was years of sports experience Previous research focused on officials’ sources of stress, years of soccer officials. There were four groups as 0-5 years, models of excellence, stress-related experiences and coping. 6-10 years, 11-15 years and 15 years and above. Our results However, the mental toughness level of officials did not showed significant differences between 15 years - above receive enough scientific attention. The present study, group and 0-5 years / 6-10 years on overall mental toughness, therefore, intended to investigate the effect of age, education confidence and constancy components. There were not found level, experience years and different categories on soccer any significant differences for the control component. Also officials’ mental toughness levels. In fact, it has been according to results, there was no significant difference observed that there is not enough scientific attention for between 11-15 years group and 15 years – above group, overall mental toughness phenomenon but there are few whose results that are consistent with the study conducted by studies on components (confidence – constancy - control) of Nazarudin et al. (2009) especially for confidence component mental toughness in sport psychology. of mental toughness. In their study, they found significant The present study examined the relationships between difference in the component of mental toughness officials’ overall mental toughness-and its’ components- and (confidence). 15 years and above group’s experience other variables such as education level, age, refereeing surpassed the all groups that were classified as 11 to 15 years’ category and sports experience years. experience, 6 to 10 years’ experience and 1 to 5 years’ Education levels of officials did not show any significant experience [25]. difference with components of mental toughness and overall. Similarly our finding that years of experience is effective Partial findings show that differences of age categories of on mental toughness levels and its’ components support officials do not influence their mental toughness. Those Connaughton et al.’s findings [26]. Connaughton et al. (2008) results are inconsistent with the study conducted by Nicholls announced that experienced sports officials have higher et al. (2009) [19]. In their study it was found that increasing mental toughness level than less experienced ones. In their age was shown to predict higher scores in total mental study, they concluded that in the development of mental toughness and its components. Moreover, Folkessen et al. toughness experts should educate referees in their careers (2002) [20] tried to examine effects of age categories on from initial periods rather than beginning when they achieve soccer referees’ concentration and motivation levels, which elite status. are accepted as an attributor of the mental toughness. One In previous studies, it has been found that more possible explanation for this situation may have been that the experienced referees reported less negative scores within younger referees have fewer amounts of matches to officiate psychological skills (anxiety, stress, choking etc.) and higher than the older ones. In contrast with these, there are support positive scores within psychological skills (self-efficacy, our findings. For example, Nazarudin et al. (2009) [21] confidence, motivation etc.) [18, 19, 20, 27, 28]. found no significant differences in mental toughness There were no significant differences between 15 years (psychological preparation) across age levels among rugby and above group and 11-15 years of sports experience group referees. The study that was conducted by Anderson (2000) on mental toughness levels. This result can be speculated as also found that there were not significant differences there is not too many years of difference between the two between age and psychological skills, especially in terms of groups. This means their experiences about officiating soccer self-efficacy [22]. matches are similar. Third criterion variable was categories of officials (District level referee; Classification assistant referee and C classification assistant referee). The findings show that there 5. Conclusion were no significant differences between officiating categories and mental toughness level and its components. In Consequently, sport officials have a challenging job, they contrast with this; Diotaiuti et al., (2017) studied on need to engaged in many different situations, including self-efficacy skill that accepted as an attributor of the mental evaluating and judging the positions that take place during toughness. There were 350 active licensed officials of the match, making fast decisions, managing the game, national and regional level. The findings of that research paying attention to multiple aspects of the game, keeping Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(11): 1970-1976, 2017 1975 order, and solving disputes [29]. Moreover, mental [8] Ratib, U., (2004). Psychological skill training – application in toughness as mentioned above can be defined as “an sports field. Alfekr Alarabie Press, Cairo, Egypt. unshakeable perseverance and conviction towards some goal [9] Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this despite pressure or adversity (p.94)” [30]. In the light of this thing called mental toughness? An investigation with elite information, the findings of this study have increased our performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 211 – 224. understanding about the mental toughness levels of soccer officials. 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