International Journal of Research and Education (IJRE) ISSN (Online): 2398-3760 Educational Research: Educational Purposes, The Nature of Knowledge and Ethical Issues Julio López-Alvarado Association for the Promotion of Research and Education, Stirling FK8 1PT, United Kingdom E-mail: [email protected] Received: 01/12/16 - Accepted: 30/12/16 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.19239/ijrev2n1p1 Abstract: Educational research should aim at improving educational practice by analysing the world of Education to understand it and make it better. It should be a critical, reflective and professionally oriented activity. Educational research should have three objectives: to explore issues and find answers to questions (for academics), to share policy (e.g. relationships between education/work/training, for policy makers) and to improve practice (for practitioners). Historically the role of the educational researcher has moved from academic theorist, through expert consultant, to reflective practitioner. Educational research has changed from the positivist assumptions underpinning the scientific–experimental paradigms which had prevailed during the 20th century, to the recent postmodernist and poststructuralist trends, which challenged the previous assumptions. Educational purposes are many and varied, and there is probably no consensus on this issue. The purposes of education can be affected by the context of the historical periods and by ideology. The purposes of education research can also be affected by the views and beliefs of reality. Educational research can in turn be affected and constrained by ethical issues. In this paper I will try and discuss the main issues regarding educational research, and how they affect the modern educational researcher. Keywords: educational research, educational purposes, nature of knowledge, ontology, epistemology, ethical issues each person. But we can notice a shocking amount of 1. Educational Purposes utilitarian reasons (to get a job, to get credentials), and just a few deeper reasons like to make a better society, or to be If we asked the question “what is the purpose of education?” free. to a wide audience, we would first realize that people may be shocked by the question, almost like if they never really We can trace some of these utilitarian reasons back to Plato: thought about it. After the initial shock, a very wide variety of answers are possible: to broaden peoples horizon, to … a society is stably organized when each prepare people to contribute to society, to prepare for a individual is doing that for which he has aptitude by successful career, to stimulate a more well-rounded society, nature in such a way as to be useful to others and to learn, to be prepared for the real world, to enable people to that it is the business of education to discover these live life at its full, to gain the knowledge to function in aptitudes and progressively to train them for social society, to make us a better society, to get a job, to be use … (Dewey, 1916, p 88). successful, to grow as a person, to get credentials, to be free, a means to an end, to be productive, to pursue a career, But Plato went beyond these utilitarian ideas to state that empathy. The answers just cited are some reasons given by “Education proceeds ultimately from the patterns furnished people in a street survey (anonymous, 2000) in Ithaca, NY, by institutions, customs, and laws. Only in a just state will home of Cornell University, an Ivy league University. These these be such as to give the right education; and only those answers given by an apparently well educated audience are who have rightly trained minds will be able to recognize the very varied, and one thing that we can state with certainty is end, and ordering principle of things” (Dewey, 1916, p 89). that there is no general agreement on what is the purpose of education, and that education may mean a different thing to Volume 2 Number 1, January-March 2017 onlinejournal.org.uk Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 1 International Journal of Research and Education (IJRE) ISSN (Online): 2398-3760 According to the Liberal Education paradigm, the purposes States, Europe and Japan and argued that in the United States of Education are to make people more rational, to develop the problems of governance stem from an excess of the intellect, empowering individuals with broad knowledge democracy and thus advocates to restore the prestige and and transferable skills, and a stronger sense of values and authority of central government institutions. That study ethics (Pring, 2004). The organization of knowledge is not claimed that institutions responsible for the indoctrination of only practical, but also philosophically sound, and the the young were not doing their job, and institutional changes responsibility for learning rests on the experts. The definition were needed in order to reinstate the indoctrination and of what is liberal education may be very broad, and in many control of educational institutions. The idea was to turn the occasions contradictory, but we may state that ‘liberal educational system into a way to control and indoctrinate the education’ is education based fairly and squarely on the youth, make education more like a vocational training, and nature of knowledge itself (Hirst, 1968). Liberal education impose a debt that traps the students into a life of conformity. takes ideas back from the ancient Greek philosophers, and Teachers would become the deliverers (not the designers) of from philosophers of the Enlightenment, and even though it educational goals decided by politicians. These reactionary may sound progressive at first, it was rooted on a concept of ideas of the mid-1970´s may have continued in a less explicit a society with strongly differentiated social classes, and its way in later administrations considering the role played by aim was not probably to extend education to all society. the Carter group in the Trilateral Commission (Chomsky, Progressive Education is a pedagogical movement that 1981), and the subsequent rise of the Reagan era in the started in the late 19th century, and persists until present times 1980´s. in various forms. Even though it shares many values with the The tensions between these two ways of viewing education Liberal Education, Progressive Education differs from continue until present days, with a number of institutions Liberal Education in a number of features. It aims at advocating for more elitist education, and other institutions democratizing education and making it available to all, and it more open to new research and innovation. The kind of also aims at solving practical problems and transversal research and the kind of educational enquiries that can be subjects based on experience. It also favours broader made by educational researchers are very determined by the curriculums including physical education, cooking, class way each institution views the purpose of education. If an discussions etc., rejecting the traditional idea of a Banking institution wants to be in the forefront of educational enquiry concept of Education (Freire, 1996). As a final purpose, and research, it will only reach beyond accepted paradigms education should be a means to give people more freedom, by thinking freely and with a wide open mind, and that is not and to build a better society for all, to become more human. very likely to happen in an institution that has indoctrination The idea that education would provide a better future and as its overriding objective. But with the current metrics used better jobs was challenged by Brown et al. (2011) in their to rank educational institutions and Countries, a lot of seminal book, The Global Auction, where they discussed emphasis is made on results that are measurable (test results, about the broken promise of education. With the rise in e.g. PISA report), and there is not always a direct correlation educated people from countries such as China and India, jobs between test results and how well students are prepared for in the global market are like a Dutch (reverse) auction work and life. (decreasing prices), in which companies are getting cheaper workers from any country. Additionally, digital Taylorism (the decomposition of IT wok into easy to follow packages) has aggravated even more this situation. 2. The Nature of Knowledge The traditional purpose of education coming from the Enlightenment is to help people determine how to learn on The nature of reality and the nature of knowledge, or rather, their own (Chomsky, 2012). Diametrically opposed to this how the researcher views reality and knowledge, will have a concept, another concept of education is that of strong impact on what can be researched and what can be indoctrination: to put people on a framework, and make them found. I will first introduce some definitions, and follow with obedient and useful workers. After the activist movements of a short discussion on its implications with educational the 1960´s in Europe and the USA, there was a concern from research. the liberal internationalist sector of the public institutions that Ontology is the branch of metaphysics dealing with the people were getting too free and independent. The study The nature of being; it deals with beliefs about reality. Different Crisis of Democracy: On the Governability of Democracies kinds of research are founded on different beliefs of what we (Huntington et al., 1975) prepared for the Trilateral think truth is. What we think reality is will shape the way we Commission, observed the political situation of the United Volume 2 Number 1, January-March 2017 onlinejournal.org.uk Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 2 International Journal of Research and Education (IJRE) ISSN (Online): 2398-3760 can know about reality. There are two types of ontology with and that in turn will have an effect on what can be done and opposing views: realism and relativism (Pring, 2000). discovered. For example, an experimental methodology Realists believe that one truth exists, that it does not change would be most likely based on a realist ontology and en etic and it can be discovered using objective measurements, epistemology: the researcher wants to prove that some making it possible to generalise. On the other end of the “thing” causes an effect, by means of observations, spectrum, relativism believes in multiple versions of reality, measurements and experimentation. They are looking for one what is real depends on the meaning we attach to truth, and truth. Quantitative methods are common in this approach, reality is not fixed, it evolves according to our experiences. and the analysis of the problem is usually deductive, starting Since reality is context-bound, it cannot be generalised, it can from a theory, a hypothesis is tested to prove or disprove the only be transferred to other similar contexts. Depending on theory. On the other hand, qualitative methods are usually what view researchers have about reality, it will influence applied to phenomenological studies, based on a relativist every decision they make about their studies. ontology and an emic epistemology (interaction with the subjects of the study) and the analysis of the problem is Epistemology is the theory of knowledge, especially with usually inductive, starting with particular case studies and regard to its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction finding patterns that can eventually lead to a general between justified belief and opinion (Hacking, 2001). It is hypothesis. These two extreme views created a false dualism basically the relationship that the researcher has with the in educational research (Dewey, 1916), with proponents of research. Basic epistemological questions are How do we get quantitative (positivists) vs. qualitative methods, the former knowledge? How do we discover new things? There are a usually assimilating social sciences to natural sciences, while number of epistemological theories (Crotty, 1998), among the latter have the view of the uniqueness of educational which the most important ones are Positivism (related to research since the researchers are dealing with human ontological realism), Popperianism (related to ontological subjects, not research objects (Pring, 2000). Philosophers of realism, but epistemological skepticism), Pragmatism (which social sciences are concerned with the differences and bypasses the ontological questions altogether), Interpretivism similarities between the social sciences and the natural (related to ontological relativism or subjectivism), and sciences, the relationships of cause and effect between Constructionism (all knowledge is constructed, related to sociological issues, the existence of social laws, and its ontological absence). ontological significance (Benton and Craib, 2001). Ontological beliefs will dictate epistemological beliefs. What We can see the importance of all these issues for researchers: the researcher believes about the nature of reality will dictate ontology will dictate epistemology, and that will in turn what kind of relationship the researcher should have with affect the methodology, methods, and results obtained. The whatever is being studied. There are two basic lines of research questions we ask will be determined by our epistemological believes on how research should be carried ontological and epistemological beliefs, and this will out. Some researchers think that research should be done in influence (and constrain) the methods used and the results an objective way, so that the researcher does not influence discovered. the data that is gathered. They believe they have to stay far from the object researched in order to get an objective measurement. This is also known as an etic approach, taking 3. Ethical Issues an outsider´s view of someone else´s situation. This epistemological approach is preferentially used by We must also consider research ethics before starting any researchers with ontological beliefs based on realism. The kind of research, and especially if this research involves opposite approach to research would be to take an emic working with people. The Belmont Report (DHEW, 1978) approach. This approach is used by researchers who believe describes the three core concepts in ethical research: respect in a subjective approach to reality (relativism). For them it is for persons, beneficence and justice. Respect for persons necessary to interact with people in order to discover their involves a person´s dignity and it requires a consent process needs. There is a potential effect of the researcher on the in which the researcher informs the potential subject of researched. And there are a number of epistemological research on the details of the study so that they can make an approaches that lie between these two extremes. informed decision. This information should include the Ontology and epistemology are therefore very important purpose of the research, study methods, time required to considerations for researchers. The ontological and participate, potential risks/benefits, and their right to ask epistemological beliefs and approaches will affect the kind of questions or quit at any time. For people with special needs, questions asked and the methodology used by the researcher, minors, mentally handicapped etc the permission from a third Volume 2 Number 1, January-March 2017 onlinejournal.org.uk Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3 International Journal of Research and Education (IJRE) ISSN (Online): 2398-3760 person will be needed to protect them from possible harm. meteorological causes while Ancient primitive cultures will Beneficence involves maximizing the possible benefits of the attribute rain to the Gods or magic. But there is no evidence research and minimizing the possible harms to the subjects of that Modern and Ancient men´s brain function any the study. These benefits or harms can be physical or differently. In both cases, men are just following the psychological, and they can affect the individuals or the generally accepted ideas and paradigms, not discovering by whole society. Justice means that the benefits or burdens of themselves the fundaments of rain (or any other phenomena). the research should be distributed fairly among peoples The way to view the world also has ethical influence. What is groups, so researchers should not be biased regarding race, considered ethically acceptable in the West could be sex, social status and so on in order to participate in the regarded as a crime in some tribal societies. To cut trees for study. Justice also protects subjects that are institutionalized money is a commonly regulated business in many parts of the (imprisoned etc). Before any study is approved it has to go world, but in the Amazon rain forest, each person is allowed through a review board for permission. Researchers must fill one single tree in his/her entire life, so he can build a boat. “It out an application that describes the study, potential benefits takes a village to raise a child”, says an old African proverb and harms etc. (Sherman et al., 2003). This is but one more example of different ways to see life and reality, probably very wise and We can see from the basic tenets mentioned before, that good very different from some western views. educational research will always be influenced and These ethical beliefs are strong cultural features that are constrained by ethical concerns. Is it possible to make a deeply impregnated in each society, and we could argue that really unbiased social research and at the same time give the one of the purposes of education in its origins was to teach participants all the information regarding the purpose of the the individuals ethical values that were aligned with the research? Will the participants in the research behave in the accepted ongoing view of the world. The pursue of same way with all the information about the purposes of the knowledge and progress into new paradigms, will only be research? Is it easy, or even possible, to predict all possible possible if/when the researcher questions the accepted views, psychological/health effects of an experiment in all potential and explores new lines of thought and enquiry that may participants? And even if we find the answer to some of these challenge currently accepted theories as “truth”. This is questions, is it fair with society not to proceed with the usually a very difficult and challenging position, that only a experiment, and deprive society of the possible benefits of few discerning minds have dared to follow in human history, the research? risking their prestige and even their lives. Newby (2010) suggested that educational research should have three objectives: to explore issues and find answers to questions (for academics), to share policy (e.g. relationships 4. Conclusion between education/work/training, for policy makers) and to improve practice (for practitioners). Historically the role of Dogs and horses can be trained, people may be trained, but the educational researcher has moved from academic theorist, only persons can be educated. Education, as opposed to through expert consultant, to reflective practitioner (Nisbet, training, is intended at making people more human. I have 2005). Educational research has changed from the positivist presented some ideas on the purposes of education, the assumptions underpinning the scientific–experimental nature of knowledge, and some ethical issues. It is interesting paradigms which had prevailed during the 20th century, to to study the historical development of educational theories the recent postmodernist and poststructuralist trends, which and the philosophy of education in order to try and challenged the previous assumptions (Gray, 2013). understand where are we now, and how can we improve Ethical concerns can be very culture dependent. Pring (2000) educational practice. Interestingly, the different trends and defined virtue as a general disposition to do the right thing at paradigms studied have not appeared in history in a linear the right time. Any virtue or ethical value therefore, sequence. Some of these are paradigms that have lived embodies the values which prevail in a social or cultural together in time. And these paradigms have been developed tradition at any given time in history. Western cultures have basically in Western Societies. Are the purposes discussed in traditionally considered that the scientific understanding of this essay valid in other societies such as some African, cause and effect is somehow superior to the magical ideas of South American, Middle East and Asian countries? Is reality primitive societies Winch (1964). However, the scientific viewed similarly in these societies? And are there similar approach is in fact as much a function of our culture as is the ethical issues shared? Will individual and cultural differences magical approach of the "savage" a function of his own make an impact on these issues? And what about tribal culture. Modern Western cultures may attribute rain to societies still un-contacted (or rather rarely contacted) by the Volume 2 Number 1, January-March 2017 onlinejournal.org.uk Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4 International Journal of Research and Education (IJRE) ISSN (Online): 2398-3760 “civilised world”? Can they learn from the lessons of our Newby, P. (2010) Research Methods for Education. Pearson history (and can we learn from theirs), or are they better left Education. alone, uncontaminated by our ideas and pre-conceptions? Nisbet, J. (2005) What is educational research? Changing Whatever the answers to these questions, I expect and hope perspectives through the 20th century. Research Papers in the theories and paradigms developed so far will help Education, 20(1), 25-44. societies to do better educational research, leading to Pring, R. (2000) Philosophy of Educational Research. improved educational practice, that will eventually lead to Continuum. making people more human, better prepared to function in a Pring, R. (2004). The Philosophy of Education. Bloomsbury better world that respects the individual, diversity, the Publishing. environment, and a common destiny for All. Sherman, S., Sperry, J., and Reese, S. (2003) The Seven Keys to Managing Strategic Accounts. 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