Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by the Environmental Protection Agency David M. Bearden, Coordinator Specialist in Environmental Policy Claudia Copeland Specialist in Resources and Environmental Policy Linda Luther Analyst in Environmental Policy James E. McCarthy Specialist in Environmental Policy Mary Tiemann Specialist in Environmental Policy Robert Esworthy Specialist in Environmental Policy Jerry H. Yen Analyst in Environmental Policy December 20, 2013 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov RL30798 Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Summary With congressional approval, the Nixon Administration established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 under an executive branch reorganization plan, which consolidated numerous federal pollution control responsibilities that had been divided among several federal agencies. EPA’s responsibilities grew over time as Congress enacted an increasing number of environmental statutes and major amendments to these statutes. EPA’s primary responsibilities have evolved to include the regulation of air quality, water quality, and chemicals in commerce; the development of regulatory criteria for the management and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes; and the cleanup of environmental contamination. The implementation and enforcement of many of these federal authorities is delegated to the states. EPA also provides financial assistance to states and local governments to aid them in administering pollution control programs and in complying with certain federal environmental requirements. Several federal statutes provide the legal authority for EPA’s programs and activities. The major provisions of each of the following statutes are summarized in this report, as laid out in existing law as of this writing. The Clean Air Act (CAA) authorizes EPA to set mobile source limits, ambient air quality standards, hazardous air pollutant emission standards, standards for new pollution sources, and significant deterioration requirements; to identify areas that do not attain federal ambient air quality standards set under the act; to administer a cap-and-trade program to reduce acid rain; and to phase out substances that deplete the Earth’s stratospheric ozone layer. The Clean Water Act (CWA) authorizes the regulation and enforcement of requirements that govern waste discharges into U.S. waters, and financial assistance for wastewater treatment plant construction and improvements. The Ocean Dumping Act focuses on the regulation of the intentional disposal of materials into ocean waters and authorizes related research. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) authorizes EPA to establish primary drinking water standards, regulate underground injection disposal practices, and administer a groundwater control program. The Solid Waste Disposal Act and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) govern the regulation of solid and hazardous wastes, and corrective actions to address improper waste management practices. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) focuses on the cleanup of contamination resulting from the past release of hazardous substances, but excludes petroleum which primarily is covered under the Oil Pollution Act. Amendments to the Solid Waste Disposal Act specifically address the cleanup of petroleum leaked from underground storage tanks that are not covered under CERCLA. The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) require regulation of commercial chemicals to reduce risks to human health and the environment. The Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) authorizes various mechanisms intended to prevent pollution by reducing the generation of pollutants at the point of origin. The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) requires industrial reporting of toxic releases and encourages chemical emergency response planning. Under these and other statutes, Congress has assigned EPA the administration of a considerable body of law and associated programs and activities. This report is not comprehensive in terms of summarizing all laws administered by EPA, but covers the major, basic statutory authorities underlying the agency’s programs and activities, and those which EPA has delegated to the states. Congressional Research Service Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Contents Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Clean Air Act ................................................................................................................................... 3 Background................................................................................................................................ 3 National Ambient Air Quality Standards ................................................................................... 5 State Implementation Plans ....................................................................................................... 5 Nonattainment Requirements .................................................................................................... 6 Requirements for Ozone Nonattainment Areas ................................................................... 7 Requirements for Carbon Monoxide Nonattainment Areas ................................................ 8 Requirements for Particulate Nonattainment Areas ............................................................ 9 Transported Air Pollution .......................................................................................................... 9 Emission Standards for Mobile Sources .................................................................................. 10 Hazardous Air Pollutants ......................................................................................................... 12 New Source Performance Standards ....................................................................................... 13 Solid Waste Incinerators .......................................................................................................... 14 Prevention of Significant Deterioration / Regional Haze ........................................................ 14 Acid Deposition Control .......................................................................................................... 15 Permits ..................................................................................................................................... 16 Enforcement ............................................................................................................................ 17 Stratospheric Ozone Protection ............................................................................................... 17 Clean Water Act ............................................................................................................................. 25 Background.............................................................................................................................. 25 Federal and State Responsibilities ........................................................................................... 28 Titles II and VI—Municipal Wastewater Treatment Construction .......................................... 28 Permits, Regulations, and Enforcement .................................................................................. 29 Ocean Dumping Act ...................................................................................................................... 34 Background.............................................................................................................................. 34 Regulating Ocean Dumping .................................................................................................... 35 Enforcement ............................................................................................................................ 36 Research and Coastal Water Quality Monitoring .................................................................... 37 Safe Drinking Water Act ................................................................................................................ 39 Background.............................................................................................................................. 39 National Drinking Water Regulations...................................................................................... 41 Contaminant Selection and Regulatory Schedules ............................................................ 41 Standard Setting ................................................................................................................ 41 Risk Assessment ................................................................................................................ 42 Variances and Exemptions ................................................................................................ 42 State Primacy ........................................................................................................................... 42 Enforcement, Consumer Information, and Citizen Suits ......................................................... 43 Consumer Information and Reports .................................................................................. 43 Citizen Suits ...................................................................................................................... 43 Compliance Improvement Programs ....................................................................................... 43 Ground Water Protection Programs ......................................................................................... 44 Source Water Assessment and Protection Programs ................................................................ 44 State Revolving Funds ............................................................................................................. 45 Drinking Water Security .......................................................................................................... 45 Vulnerability Assessments ................................................................................................. 45 Congressional Research Service Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Emergency Powers ............................................................................................................ 46 Tampering with Public Water Systems .............................................................................. 46 Emergency Assistance ....................................................................................................... 46 Other Selected Provisions ........................................................................................................ 47 Lead-Free Plumbing .......................................................................................................... 47 Research, Technical Assistance, and Training ......................................................................... 47 Demonstration Grants .............................................................................................................. 48 Records, Inspections, and Monitoring ..................................................................................... 48 National Drinking Water Advisory Council ............................................................................ 48 Federal Agencies ..................................................................................................................... 48 Assistance to Colonias ............................................................................................................. 49 Estrogenic Substances ............................................................................................................. 49 Drinking Water Studies ............................................................................................................ 49 Solid Waste Disposal Act/Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ........................................... 52 Background.............................................................................................................................. 52 Waste Management Requirements .......................................................................................... 53 Hazardous Waste Management Requirements .................................................................. 53 Solid Waste Management Requirements ........................................................................... 55 Citizen Suits and Imminent Hazard Provisions ....................................................................... 56 Underground Storage Tanks .................................................................................................... 57 Promoting Recycling ............................................................................................................... 58 Amendments to RCRA ............................................................................................................ 59 Solid Waste Disposal Act Amendments of 1980 ............................................................... 59 The Used Oil Recycling Act of 1989 ................................................................................ 60 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 ............................................................ 61 Federal Facility Compliance Act of 1992 .......................................................................... 61 1996 Amendments ............................................................................................................. 62 Hazardous Waste Electronic Manifest Establishment Act ................................................ 62 Additional Selected Laws Affecting Solid Waste Management .............................................. 62 Sanitary Food Transportation Act ..................................................................................... 62 Clean Air Act ..................................................................................................................... 62 Pollution Prevention Act ................................................................................................... 63 Indian Lands Open Dump Cleanup Act ............................................................................ 63 Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act .................................... 63 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act ............................... 67 Major Amendments ................................................................................................................. 68 Federal Response Authorities .................................................................................................. 71 Petroleum Exclusion and Related Oil Pollution Act Authorities ....................................... 72 Other Exclusions ............................................................................................................... 72 Limitations on Response Actions ...................................................................................... 72 Prioritization of Response Actions .................................................................................... 72 Scope of Response Actions ............................................................................................... 73 Federal-State Cost Sharing ................................................................................................ 74 Selection of Response Actions ................................................................................................ 75 Cleanup Standards ............................................................................................................. 75 State Participation ............................................................................................................. 76 Public Participation ........................................................................................................... 76 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ................................................................ 77 Financial Liability ................................................................................................................... 77 Congressional Research Service Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Categories of Potentially Responsible Parties ................................................................... 77 Reach of Liability .............................................................................................................. 78 Defenses to Liability ......................................................................................................... 79 Limitations on Liability ..................................................................................................... 79 Hazardous Substance Superfund Trust Fund ........................................................................... 80 Original Taxing Authority ................................................................................................. 80 Current Source of Revenues .............................................................................................. 81 Enforcement Mechanisms ....................................................................................................... 81 Federal Facilities ..................................................................................................................... 82 National Security Exemption................................................................................................... 83 Brownfields Properties ............................................................................................................ 84 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act ........................................................... 88 Subtitle A—Emergency Planning and Notification ................................................................. 88 Subtitle B—Reporting Requirements ...................................................................................... 89 Subtitle C—General Provisions............................................................................................... 91 Trade Secrets ..................................................................................................................... 91 Information for Health Professionals ................................................................................ 91 Right to Know ................................................................................................................... 91 Enforcement ...................................................................................................................... 91 Chemical Transport ........................................................................................................... 91 Other Provisions ................................................................................................................ 91 Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 ................................................................................................... 93 Background.............................................................................................................................. 93 Provisions ................................................................................................................................ 93 Toxic Substances Control Act ........................................................................................................ 96 Background.............................................................................................................................. 97 Title I ....................................................................................................................................... 97 Testing of Chemicals ......................................................................................................... 98 Pre-manufacture Notification for New Chemicals or Uses ............................................... 98 Regulatory Controls for Hazardous Chemicals ................................................................. 99 Information Gathering ..................................................................................................... 100 Imminent Hazards ........................................................................................................... 100 Relation to Other Laws ................................................................................................... 101 Enforcement and Judicial Review ................................................................................... 101 Confidential Business Information .................................................................................. 101 Chemical Categories ....................................................................................................... 101 State Preemption ............................................................................................................. 102 Other Provisions .............................................................................................................. 102 Title II (Asbestos in Buildings) ............................................................................................. 103 Title III (Radon Programs) .................................................................................................... 103 Title IV (Lead Exposure Reduction) ..................................................................................... 104 Title V (Reducing Risks in Schools) ..................................................................................... 106 Title VI (Limiting Formaldehyde Emissions) ....................................................................... 107 Pesticide Laws ............................................................................................................................. 110 History of Federal Pesticide Law .......................................................................................... 111 FIFRA ............................................................................................................................. 111 FFDCA ............................................................................................................................ 114 Registration of Pesticide Products ......................................................................................... 115 Tolerance Setting ................................................................................................................... 117 Congressional Research Service Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Public Disclosure, Exclusive Use, and Trade Secrets............................................................ 118 Reregistration ........................................................................................................................ 119 Registration Review .............................................................................................................. 120 Special Review ...................................................................................................................... 120 Canceling or Suspending a Registration ................................................................................ 120 Use of Unregistered Pesticides .............................................................................................. 121 Enforcement .......................................................................................................................... 121 Export of Unregistered Pesticides ......................................................................................... 121 National Environmental Policy Act ............................................................................................. 124 The NEPA Process ................................................................................................................. 125 Environmental Protection Agency Functions Under NEPA .................................................. 126 Tables Table 1. Clean Air Act and Amendments ......................................................................................... 4 Table 2. Statutory Ozone Nonattainment Classifications ................................................................ 6 Table 3. Current Ozone Nonattainment Classifications ................................................................... 7 Table 4. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Clean Air Act, as Amended ......................................... 19 Table 5. Clean Water Act and Major Amendments ........................................................................ 25 Table 6. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Clean Water Act, as Amended ..................................... 31 Table 7. Ocean Dumping Act and Amendments ............................................................................ 34 Table 8. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Ocean Dumping Act, as Amended .............................. 38 Table 9. Safe Drinking Water Act and Amendments ..................................................................... 40 Table 10. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Safe Drinking Water Act, as Amended (Title XIV of the Public Health Service Act) ....................................................................................... 50 Table 11. Solid Waste Disposal Act/Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Major Amendments ............................................................................................................................... 52 Table 12. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Solid Waste Disposal Act/ Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) ................................................................................... 63 Table 13. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and Major Amendments .......................................................................................... 70 Table 14. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as Amended, and Related Acts ............ 85 Table 15. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Emergency Planning and Community Right- to-Know Act (EPCRA) ............................................................................................................... 92 Table 16. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Pollution Prevention Act ........................................... 95 Table 17. Toxic Substances Control Act and Major Amendments ................................................. 97 Table 18. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Toxic Substances Control Act, as Amended ............ 108 Table 19. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act and Amendments ...................... 113 Table 20. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, Section 408, and Amendments .................... 114 Congressional Research Service Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Table 21. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), as Amended .................................................................................... 122 Table 22. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), as Amended, Related to Pesticides .......................................................................... 123 Table 23. National Environmental Policy Act, Amendments, and Related Acts ......................... 125 Table 24. Major U.S. Code Sections of the National Environmental Policy Act, as Amended ................................................................................................................................... 128 Contacts Author Contact Information......................................................................................................... 129 Congressional Research Service Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Introduction The origin of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is rooted in a reorganization of the executive branch under the Nixon Administration. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970 proposed the establishment of EPA to integrate the administration of numerous federal pollution control laws that had been carried out by several federal agencies. This plan was part of a broader effort to reorganize an array of environmental responsibilities of many federal agencies, which also resulted in the creation of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).1 The Nixon Administration created EPA and NOAA through this reorganization with congressional approval under procedures established in the Reorganization Act of 1949, as amended.2 The Reorganization Act authorizes the President to propose reorganizations to Congress that would promote the “better execution” of federal laws, the “more effective” management of individual agencies and their functions, and the “efficiency of the operations of Government to the fullest extent practicable.”3 President Nixon determined that the consolidation of federal pollution control responsibilities under one agency was necessary to meet these statutory objectives, and proposed a reorganization of the executive branch to establish EPA under Reorganization Plan No. 3. The plan was based largely on recommendations of the “Ash Council,” which President Nixon had formed to examine the organization of environmental responsibilities among federal agencies. The 91st Congress approved this plan, leading to the creation of EPA on December 2, 1970.4 Over time, EPA’s authorities have grown as Congress has enacted an increasing number of environmental statutes and major amendments to these statutes. EPA’s primary responsibilities have evolved to include the regulation of air quality, water quality, and chemicals in commerce; the development of regulatory criteria for the management and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes; and the cleanup of environmental contamination. Although EPA sets uniform pollution control standards and regulations on a national level, the implementation and enforcement of many of these federal standards and regulations are delegated to the states. EPA also provides financial assistance in the form of grants to states and local governments to aid them in administering pollution control programs and in complying with certain federal environmental requirements. The states also have enacted their own pollution control authorities and programs, which complement the federal role of EPA in protecting human health and the environment. This report presents a summary of the body of federal environmental statutes that together constitute the main authorities of EPA, but this report is not comprehensive in terms of discussing all federal statutes that may authorize certain activities of the agency.5 This report highlights prominent provisions of the selected statutes discussed herein, characterizes the purpose and scope of major programs and activities authorized in each statute, and explains the definitions of key statutory terms that establish the parameters of the agency’s authorities in these instances. 1 Reorganization Plan No. 4 addressed the establishment of NOAA. 2 5 U.S.C. §901 et seq. 3 5 U.S.C. §901(a). 4 Approval of executive branch reorganization plans under the Reorganization Act of 1949, as amended, is subject to congressional approval through a resolution process outlined at 5 U.S.C. §906. 5 For example, the National Environmental Education Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-619) authorized EPA to award grants to elementary and secondary schools to support environmental education. Congressional Research Service 1 Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Although Congress somewhat recently has renewed the authorization of appropriations for certain EPA programs and activities through targeted amendments to various statutes, a more comprehensive reauthorization of many of the statutes that EPA administers has not been enacted for a number of years. Even though the authorization of appropriations may expire, program authority (often referred to as an agency’s “enabling” authority) generally does not expire unless repealed, or unless there is a “sunset” date for the program authority itself. If the authorization of appropriations for a specific program or activity has expired, Congress still may provide funding through the annual appropriations process to continue that program or activity, if certain rules for floor consideration are not enforced or are waived. House and Senate rules generally do not allow the appropriation of funding for a program or activity that Congress has not authorized in law, but these rules are subject to points of order and are not self-enforcing. Congress therefore may appropriate funding for a specific program or activity for which the authorization of appropriations has expired, if no Member raises a point of order, or the rules are waived for consideration of a particular bill. Congress typically has done so to continue the appropriation of funding for EPA programs and activities for which the authorization of appropriations has expired. Once enacted, appropriations provide the legal authority for an agency to obligate federal funds in that particular fiscal year.6 Congress appropriates funding for EPA within the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies annual appropriations bill.7 (For a discussion of enacted funding for FY2013, see CRS Report R43207, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Appropriations for FY2013 in P.L. 113-6, by Robert Esworthy and David M. Bearden.) This report focuses primarily on EPA’s program authorities under the statutes discussed herein. A list of major amendments to the parent statute is provided at the beginning of each summary. The final table at the end of each summary lists the individual provisions of the statute, cross- referencing the sections of the public laws to the sections of the United States Code where each provision is codified. The summaries in this report outline the major provisions of each statute, but are not comprehensive in terms of discussing every provision of these statutes in their entirety. For the purpose of brevity, the summaries omit certain details and secondary provisions that would necessitate a lengthier examination. Furthermore, some prominent provisions are only briefly mentioned, which are beyond the scope of the summaries provided herein. Moreover, this report provides an analytical summary of the major provisions of the statutes as laid out in existing law as of this writing. This report does not examine issues associated with their implementation or with regulations that EPA may have proposed or promulgated to carry out these statutes. Other CRS reports offer information on current developments and issues associated with the implementation of various statutory authorities of EPA and the agency’s regulatory role under these statutes, many of which are cited in this report where relevant to the discussion. 6 For a discussion of these and other budgetary procedures, see CRS Report 98-721, Introduction to the Federal Budget Process, coordinated by Bill Heniff Jr. 7 During the 109th Congress, EPA’s funding was moved from the jurisdiction of the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees on Veterans Affairs, Housing and Urban Development, and Independent Agencies to the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations Subcommittees, beginning with the FY2006 appropriations. This change resulted from the abolition of the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees on Veterans Affairs, Housing and Urban Development, and Independent Agencies. This subcommittee jurisdiction was transferred among the remaining subcommittees of the House and Senate Committees on Appropriations. Congressional Research Service 2 Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by EPA Clean Air Act8 The Clean Air Act, codified as 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq., seeks to protect human health and the environment from emissions that pollute ambient, or outdoor, air. It requires the Environmental Protection Agency to establish minimum national standards for air quality, and assigns primary responsibility to the states to assure compliance with the standards. Areas not meeting the standards, referred to as “nonattainment areas,” are required to implement specified air pollution control measures. The act establishes federal standards for mobile sources of air pollution and their fuels and for sources of 187 hazardous air pollutants, and it establishes a cap-and-trade program for the emissions that cause acid rain. It establishes a comprehensive permit system for all major sources of air pollution. It also addresses the prevention of pollution in areas with clean air and protection of the stratospheric ozone layer. Background Like many other programs administered by the Environmental Protection Agency, federal efforts to control air pollution have gone through several phases, beginning with information collection, research, and technical assistance, before being strengthened to establish federal standards and enforcement. Federal legislation addressing air pollution was first passed in 1955, prior to which air pollution was the exclusive responsibility of state and local levels of government. The federal role was strengthened in subsequent amendments, notably the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, 1977, and 1990. The 1970 amendments established the procedures under which EPA sets national standards for ambient air quality, required a 90% reduction in emissions from new automobiles by 1975, established a program to require the best available control technology at major new sources of air pollution, established a program to regulate air toxics, and greatly strengthened federal enforcement authority. The 1977 amendments adjusted the auto emission standards, extended deadlines for the attainment of ambient air quality standards, and added the Prevention of Significant Deterioration program to protect air cleaner than national standards. Changes to the act in 1990 included provisions to (1) classify most nonattainment areas according to the extent to which they exceed the standard, tailoring deadlines, planning, and controls to each area’s status; (2) tighten auto and other mobile source emission standards; (3) require reformulated and alternative fuels in the most polluted areas; (4) revise the air toxics section, establishing a new program of technology-based standards and addressing the problem of sudden, catastrophic releases of air toxics; (5) establish an acid rain control program, with a marketable allowance scheme to provide flexibility in implementation; (6) require a state-run permit program for the operation of major sources of air pollutants; (7) implement the Montreal Protocol to phase out most ozone-depleting chemicals; and (8) update the enforcement provisions so that they parallel those in other pollution control acts, including authority for EPA to assess administrative penalties. 8 Prepared by James E. McCarthy and Claudia Copeland, Specialists in the Resources, Science, and Industry Division. Congressional Research Service 3