Encyclopedia of American Law Encyclopedia of american law DAVID SCHULTZ For Mom, who bought me my first encyclopedia 8 Encyclopedia of American Law Copyright © 2002 by David Schultz All rights reserved. No partof this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The encyclopedia of American law/[edited by] David Schultz. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-4329-9 1. Law—United States—Encyclopedias. I. Schultz, David A. (David Andrew), 1958– KF154 .E528 2002 349.73’03—dc21 2001040206 Facts On File books areavailable at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text and cover design by Cathy Rincon Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. C O N T E N T S LIST OF ENTRIES vii PREFACE xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii CONTRIBUTORS xv ENTRIES A–Z 1 APPENDICES 479 Declaration of Independence Articles of Confederation The Constitution of the United States of America Bill of Rights Other Amendments to the Constitution Emancipation Proclamation Locating Court Cases and Laws Justices of the Supreme Court How Cases Reach the United States Supreme Court The Stages of a Criminal Case INDEX 527 L I S T O F E N T R I E S abortion asylum censorship Abrams v. United States attempt certiorari, writ of abstention attorney general, U.S. Samuel Chase academic freedom attorneys general chief justice accessory bail child pornography actus reus Baker v.. Carr citizenship Adamson v.California bankruptcy civil action administrative discretion Barron v. Mayor of Baltimore civil disobedience Administrative Procedures Act Batson v. Kentucky civil liberties Admiralty law Charles A. Beard civil procedure advisoryopinion Berman v. Parker Civil Rights movement affirmative action bill of attainder civil rights alienage Bill of Rights class action alternative dispute resolution Hugo Black Clayton Act Amendments to the U.S. Sir William Blackstone clear and convincing evidence Constitution Bolling v.Sharpe Clinton v.Jones American Bar Association bond Collin v. Smith American Civil Liberties Union Robert H. Bork commerce clause Americans with Disabilities Act Bowers v.Hardwick commercial speech amicus curiae Bradwell v. Illinois comparable worth animal rights Brandeis brief compelling governmental antitrust law Louis D. Brandeis interests appeal Brandenburg v. Ohio condominium appellate briefs William J. Brennan Jr. consent order appellate jurisdiction Stephen Gerald Breyer conspiracy appointment and removal brief Constitution power (executive) Brown v.Board of Education constitutional interpretation right to bear arms Buckley v. Valeo constitutional law arraignment burden of proof contempt arrest Warren E. Burger contingency fee arson burglary contract Articles of Confederation Harold Hitz Burton cooperative assault and battery capital punishment U.S. Court of Appeals assisted reproductive Benjamin Cardozo criminal justice system technologies cease and desist order cruel and unusual punishment vii viii List of Entries Dartmouth College v. Woodward expert testimony John Marshall Harlan Declaration of Independence expert witness hate crimes declaratory judgment expost facto hearsay defamation extradition Oliver Wendell Holmes defense attorney Fair Housing Act John Edgar Hoover Defense of Marriage Act family House Un-American Activities deposition Family and Medical Leave Act Committee deterrence Federal Bureau of Investigation Hurtado v. People of California discretion federal court system illegal alien district attorney federal courts Immigration and divorce Federal Rules of Evidence Naturalization Service DNA testing Federal Tort Claims Act immigration law domestic partnership law federalism immunity domestic violence felony impeachment double jeopardy felony murder in forma pauperispetitions William O Douglas fingerprinting in loco parentis Dred Scott v.Sanford flag burning incorporation Doctrine Driving Under the Influence Fletcher v. Peck Indian rights due process Food and Drug Administration injunction Duncan v.Louisiana Felix Frankfurter insanity Eisenstadt v. Baird fraud insider trading Oliver Ellsworth freedom of assembly and intent Emancipation Proclamation association international law embezzlement freedom of conscience Internet and World Wide Web eminent Domain Freedom of Information Act Interstate Commerce Employment Division v. Smith freedom of speech Commission employment law freedom of the press Iran-Contra affair Engel v.Vitale Frontierov.Richardson John Jay entrapment Melvin W. Fuller Jim Crow laws environmental law Furman v. Georgia Lyndon Baines Johnson Environmental Protection in reGault judge Agency gay rights judicial review Equal Pay Act Gibbons v. Ogden jurisdiction equal protection of the laws Ruth Bader Ginsburg jury Equal Rights Amendment Gitlow v.New York justice equitable remedies grand jury U.S. Department of Justice equity Green v. New Kent County Kansas-Nebraska Act ERISA Gregg v. Georgia Katz v. United States Escobedo v. United States Griggs v. Duke Power Company Anthony M. Kennedy establishment clause Griswold v. Connecticut John Fitzgerald Kennedy Ethics in Government Act group standing Martin Luther King Jr. Everson v. Board of Education guardian ad litem Rodney King evidence habeas corpus Korematsu v.United States exclusionary rule Hammer v. Dagenhart Ku Klux Klan executive privilege Learned Hand labor law List of Entries ix land use law Palko v. Connecticut right to counsel law pandering right to die law clerk paralegal right to vote law school pardon robbery legal ethics parole Roe v. Wade legal malpractice petit Jury Romer v. Evans legal realism physician-assisted suicide Franklin Delano Roosevelt Legal Services Corporation Planned Parenthood v. Casey San Antonio v. Rodriguez Lemon v. Kurtzman plea bargaining Antonin Scalia libel Plessy v. Ferguson Schenck v. United States liberty of contract Plyler v. Doe Second Amendment library book banning police power section 1983 actions Abraham Lincoln political corruption Securities and Exchange Lochner v. New York polygraph test Commission malice pornography segregation Mapp v.Ohio Powell v.Alabama self-defense Marburyv.Madison prayer in public schools self-incrimination John Marshall precedent sentencing guidelines Thurgood Marshall Pregnancy Disability Act Separate But Equal martial law preponderance of evidence Shapirov. Thompson McCleskey v. Kemp preventive detention Shaw v. Reno mediation prior restraint Shelley v.Kraemer medical examiner prisoners’ rights sheriff mens rea privileges and immunities Sherman Act Mexican American Legal clauses Slaughterhouse Cases Defense and Educational probable cause small-claims court Fund products liability solicitor general Minor v.Happersett prosecutor special damages Miranda v. Arizona psychopath right to a speedy and public Miranda warnings public defender trial misdemeanor punishment stalking Model Penal Code punitive damages standing motive racial profiling stare decisis Muller v.Oregon R.A.V.v.City of St. Paul state action murder reasonable doubt state bills of rights NAACP Reconstruction state constitutional law National Institute of Justice Regents of the University of states’ rights New Jersey v. T.L.O. California v. Bakke status offense New York Times Co. v. Sullivan regulatory crime statute of frauds Ninth Amendment William H. Rehnquist statute of limitations nuisance religion statutory rape O’Brien v. United States res judicata John Paul Stevens obscenity restitution Harlan Fiske Stone Sandra Day O’Connor restraining order strict liability Oklahoma City v. Dowell Reynolds v. Sims strict scrutiny