The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Education EDUCATION ABROAD AND THE MAKING OF GLOBAL CITIZENS: ASSESSING LEARNING OUTCOMES OF COURSE-EMBEDDED, FACULTY-LED INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMMING A Dissertation in Educational Theory and Policy & Comparative and International Education by Anthony C. Ogden © 2010 Anthony C. Ogden Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2010 The dissertation of Anthony C. Ogden was reviewed and approved* by the following: Gerald LeTendre, PhD. Professor of Educational Theory and Policy & Comparative and International Education Department Head, Education Policy Studies Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee Dana Mitra, PhD. Assistant Professor of Educational Theory and Policy Duarte Morais, PhD. Associate Professor of Recreation, Park and Tourism Management David Post, PhD. Professor of Higher Education & Comparative and International Education * Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ii ABSTRACT This study builds on education abroad, global citizenship and academic development literatures by assessing the extent to which embedding brief international travel experiences into residentially-taught courses enhances academic development and promotes global citizenship. Such faculty-led, education abroad programs are referred to as embedded programs. Grounded in Transformative Learning Theory, the study addressed two primary research questions: 1.) to what extent does participation in embedded education abroad programming mediate changes in students’ global citizenship, and thereby, social responsibility, global competence and global civic engagement; and, 2.) to what extent does participation in embedded education abroad programming enhance academic development, specifically with regard to academic self-concept and academic self-efficacy? A quasi-experimental study utilizing a nonequivalent control group design was employed to address these questions. Statistically reliable and valid scales were developed to measure academic development and global citizenship. The results show that the embedded and match courses varied with regard to their overall mean scores for global citizenship and academic development and in the pattern with which they change over time. Students in the embedded courses had significantly higher pre-test and post-test mean scores for both global citizenship and academic development. Both samples showed positive increases in global citizenship over time, but only the students in the match courses showed significant change. Neither sample showed overall positive change toward academic development, but students in the embedded courses did show increases in academic self-efficacy. Additionally, the study scrutinized widely-held assumptions of the traditional education abroad student profile by more accurately accounting for previously underrepresented or unacknowledged populations. In particular, the study focused on the extent to which financial need, first-generation status, and heritage impact education abroad choice and in what ways these and others populations participate in education abroad programming. To do so, a comprehensive, four-year enrollment analysis of all degree-seeking Pennsylvania State University students who studied abroad in academic years 2005/06, 2006/07, 2007/08, and 2008/09 was conducted. The findings show that education abroad program type does in fact appeal differently to particular student populations. Males, minorities, first-generation, non-traditional students, and those with greater financial need are disproportionately represented in embedded programs. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures .................................................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .................................................................................................................................................... vii Preface ................................................................................................................................................................ ix Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................................. x Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 I Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1 II Background of Education Abroad Outcomes Research ................................................................ 3 III Purpose .................................................................................................................................................. 6 IV Research Questions .............................................................................................................................. 7 V Study Justification ................................................................................................................................. 8 VI Defintion of Terms .............................................................................................................................. 9 VII Outline of Chapters ........................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 13 I Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 13 II Higher Education & Global Citizenship ........................................................................................ 13 III Education Abroad & Outcomes Assessment ................................................................................ 15 IV Global Citizenship .............................................................................................................................. 27 V Academic Development .................................................................................................................... 40 VI Transformative Learning Theory & Education Abroad ............................................................... 49 VII Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 56 Chapter Three: Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 59 I Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 59 II Quasi-Experimental Study ................................................................................................................ 60 III Enrollment Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 67 IV Methodological Limitations of the Study ....................................................................................... 71 V Delimitations of the Study ................................................................................................................ 73 iv Chapter Four: Scale Development ................................................................................................................ 75 I Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 75 II Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................................... 76 III Scale Development Methodology .................................................................................................... 80 IV Analysis and Results ........................................................................................................................... 80 V Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 102 Chapter Five: Enrollment Analysis ............................................................................................................ 103 I Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 103 II Background ...................................................................................................................................... 104 III Data Analysis & Results ................................................................................................................. 107 IV Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 126 Chapter Six: Quasi-Experimental Study .................................................................................................... 127 I Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 127 II Description of the Study Sample .................................................................................................. 128 III Research Questions ......................................................................................................................... 132 IV Moderating Effects ......................................................................................................................... 141 V Course Evaluation ........................................................................................................................... 146 VI Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 148 Chapter Seven: Conclusions, Implications, Recommendations ............................................................. 150 I Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 150 II Summary of Findings ...................................................................................................................... 151 III Discussion of Findings ................................................................................................................... 153 IV Theoretical & Practical Implications ............................................................................................ 174 V Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................................... 182 References ...................................................................................................................................................... 188 Appendix A: Pre-Test Questionnaire ........................................................................................................ 210 Appendix B: Post-Test Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 217 Appendix C: Consent Form ........................................................................................................................ 223 Appendix D: Instrument Ranking Document .......................................................................................... 224 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Transformative Education Abroad Model (TEAM) 53 Figure 2.2 Research Model of Education Abroad Learning Outcomes: Global 57 Citizenship and Academic Development Figure 4.1 Global Citizenship Conceptual Model 78 Figure 4.2 Academic Development Conceptual Model 79 Figure 4.3 Final Measurement Model of the Global Citizenship Scale 96 Figure 4.4 Final Measurement Model of the Academic Development Scale 97 Figure 5.1 Demographic Characteristics of Population: Race/Ethnicity & Need Index, 109 2005-2009 Figure 6.1 Overall Results: Global Citizenship 133 Figure 6.2 Overall Results: Academic Development 134 Figure 6.3 Dimension Level: Global Citizenship Pre-test Results (Test of Independence) 134 Figure 6.4 Dimension Level: Global Citizenship Post-test Results (Test of 135 Independence) Figure 6.5 Dimension Level: Global Citizenship Pre-/Post-test Results (Embedded) 136 Figure 6.6 Dimension Level: Global Citizenship Pre-/Post-test Results (Match) 137 Figure 6.7 Dimension Level: Academic Development Pre-/Post-test Results (Test of 139 Independence) Figure 6.8 Dimension Level: Academic Development Pre-/Post-test Results 140 Figure 6.9 Moderating Variable (Previous Study Abroad Experience): Pre-/Post-test 143 Results Figure 6.10 Moderating Variable (Language Proficiency): Pre-/Post-test Results 144 Figure 7.1 Research Model of Education Abroad Learning Outcomes: Global 154 Citizenship and Academic Development Figure 7.2 Transformative Education Abroad Model (TEAM) 155 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Global Citizenship Literature by Thematic Grouping 32 Table 2.2 Dimensions of Global Citizenship 34 Table 2.3 Dimensions of Academic Development 46 Table 3.1 Embedded and Match Courses 63 Table 3.2 Continuous Dependent Variables by Sub-Dimension 64 Table 3.3 Structured Group Interviews, Utilizing Nominal Group Technique 66 Table 4.1 Global Citizenship Scale 84 Table 4.2 Academic Development Scale 86 Table 4.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis of Global Citizenship Scale 89 Table 4.4 Exploratory Factor Analysis of Academic Development Scale 92 Table 4.5 Goodness of Fit Indices (CFA) 95 Table 4.6 Nominal Group Technique, Student Generated Ideas on Global Citizenship 99 Table 4.7 Goodness of Fit Indices (Post CFA) 100 Table 4.8 Reliability Indices by Dimension & Sub-dimension (Global Citizenship) 101 Table 4.9 Reliability Indices by Dimension & Sub-dimension (Academic Development) 102 Table 5.1 Demographic Characteristics of Population, 2005-2009 108 Table 5.2 Academic Characteristics of Population, 2005-2009 110 Table 5.3 Program Characteristics of Enrollment, 2005-2009 111 Table 5.4 Institutional Characteristics, 2005-2009 112 Table 5.5 Semester Enrollments by Academic Year, 2005-2009 114 Table 5.6 Demographic Characteristics: Changes Over Time, 2005-2009 114 Table 5.7 Academic Characteristics: Changes Over Time, 2005-2009 115 Table 5.8 Program Characteristics: Changes Over Time, 2005-2009 116 vii Table 5.9 Institutional Characteristics: Changes Over Time, 2005-2009 117 Table 5.10 Demographic Characteristics: By Program Type, 2005-2009 118 Table 5.11 Demographic Characteristics: Program Type & Need Index, 2005-2009 120 Table 5.12 Academic Characteristics: Program Type, 2005-2009 121 Table 5.13 Program Characteristics: Program Type, 2005-2009 122 Table 5.14 Program Characteristics: Race/Ethnicity by Region, 2005-2009 124 Table 5.15 Institutional Characteristics: Program Type, 2005-2009 124 Table 5.16 Institutional Characteristics: GPA Change 125 Table 5.17 GPA Change Over Time: Program Type, 2005-2009 125 Table 6.1 Sample Demographics 129 Table 6.2 Course Information 131 Table 6.3 Dimension Level: Global Citizenship Pre-/Post-test Results (Test of 135 Independence) Table 6.4 Sub-dimension Level: Global Citizenship Pre-/Post-test Results 138 Table 6.5 Dimension Level: Academic Development Pre-/Post-test Results (Test of 139 Independence) Table 6.6 Sub-dimension Level: Academic Development Pre-/Post-test Results 141 Table 6.7 Moderating Variable (Gender): Pre-/Post-test Results 142 Table 6.8 Moderating Variable (Previous Study Abroad Experience): Pre-/Post-test 144 Results Table 6.9 Moderating Variable (Language Proficiency): Pre-/Post-test Results 145 Table 6.10 Course Evaluation 147 Table 7.1 Comparative Enrollment Trends, Institutional and National 165 Table 7.2 Comparative Enrollment Trends, Institutional and National 169 viii PREFACE This dissertation study originates in part from a funded research project entitled, “Embedded Education Abroad Faculty Toolkit: Developing and Implementing Course-Embedded Faculty-led International Programs.” Dr. Duarte Morais, associate professor and director of the Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Management’s Tourism Research Lab of The Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) managed the project. Co-researchers included Dr. Christine Buzinde and Mr. Anthony C. Ogden. This project involved the collaboration of a number of supportive faculty and staff from five Penn State campuses: Abington, Altoona, DuBois, Erie- Behrend, and University Park. The project was funded by the Penn State Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence through a 2008-2009 Teaching Support Grant, an institutional grant designed to give faculty, departments, and/or campuses the personnel or financial support needed to enhance courses, develop different ways to assess student learning, assess the quality of degree-granting programs, and implement new teaching strategies. The project received additional funding and administrative support from the University Office of Global Programs at Penn State. The Faculty Toolkit is available online at www.global.psu.edu. ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many individuals made my graduate work possible, manageable, and enjoyable. I extend sincere appreciation to Dr. Gerald LeTendre, my advisor and the chair of my dissertation committee, for his on-going encouragement and unwavering support over the years. I am also immensely grateful for the efforts of Drs. David Post and Dana Mitra for their valuable insight and guidance through the dissertation process. I would especially like to acknowledge Dr. Duarte Morais, who has been my close friend, colleague, mentor, professor, committee member, co-investigator, supervisor, and outdoor instructor. Dr. Morais has helped me engage in new ways of thinking, to more actively pursue innovative areas of research and scholarship, and to further develop as an international educator and scholar. It has truly been an honor to work with such accomplished, intelligent, and dedicated educators. I would also like to acknowledge and thank numerous colleagues and friends who have contributed to my professional, academic, and personal development over the years. I am deeply indebted to many within the University Office of Global Programs, the Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence, the College of Education, and the College of Health and Human Development for their cooperation, support, and assistance throughout this process. In particular, I would like to acknowledge Dr. Ruth Mendum for initially encouraging me to pursue my doctorate and to Ms. Susan Knell for keeping after me along the way. Most importantly, I am deeply grateful to my partner Takashi for his patience and unconditional love over the years that have provided me with the necessary strength and resolve to persevere in this journey. x