Contextualizing Conflict: The Persecutions of 1 Peter in Their Anatolian Setting Submitted by Travis B. Williams to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Theology In October 2010 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. To Amy םעו ןהלוכ ןמ אלעל אהרפש אילעו תרפש רפוש ןישנ לוכ לעו אאי אהידילדו אהמע איגש מכחא ןד ארפש לוכ (1QapGen xx 6-8) (κύριε) ἐπίταξον ἐλεῆσαί µε καὶ αὐτὴν καὶ συνκαταγηρᾶσαι κοινῶς (Tob 8.7, GII) ii Abstract From beginning to end, the epistle of 1 Peter is concerned with responding to the conflict in which the Anatolian readers have presently become involved. Nevertheless, throughout the history of Petrine scholarship the nature of this problem has generated significant disagreement. Within the most recent discussion, however, a general consensus has been reached. Virtually all commentators now tend to agree that this conflict is a kind of unofficial, local hostility which arose sporadically out of the disdain from the general populace and which was expressed primarily through discrimination and verbal abuse. Ultimately, though, this position rests on a number of undemonstrated contentions which have never been examined through comprehensive and detailed socio-historical inquiry. The present study is intended to take up the question afresh and to thereby rectify the significant missteps through which the topic has been previously approached. Our purpose is to determine the nature of suffering in 1 Peter by situating the letter against the backdrop of conflict management in first-century CE Asia Minor. To do so, we seek to understand the different means by which conflict was dealt with in Roman Anatolia and how the persecutions of 1 Peter fit into this larger context. Part of this goal is to examine how conflict affected different social groups within the community as a way of determining the various forms of suffering to which specific members may have been prone. Therefore, our efforts consist of an attempt to differentiate the readers’ troubling experiences by providing a detailed “social profile” of the letter’s recipients and to contextualize the conflict situation by locating the problem and its subsequent resolution strategies within the world of first-century CE Asia Minor. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements............................................................................................................ix Abbreviations.....................................................................................................................xi INTRODUCTION Chapter 1 – Introductory Matters.........................................................................................2 A. The Persecutions of 1 Peter in Previous Research.........................................................2 B. Purpose of the Study....................................................................................................14 C. Resolving the Difficulties of Historical Reconstruction..............................................16 D. Authorship and Date....................................................................................................21 Chapter 2 – Social Conflict in Social-Psychological Perspective.....................................33 A. Contribution of Social-Psychological Inquiry.............................................................33 B. Defining Social Conflict..............................................................................................35 C. Stages of Social Conflict..............................................................................................37 1. Emergence of Social Conflict.................................................................................38 2. Strategic Choice in Social Conflict.........................................................................44 3. Struggle and Conflict Escalation............................................................................48 a. Nature of Conflict Escalation............................................................................48 b. Psychological Processes in Conflict Escalation................................................50 c. Amplifying Factors of Conflict Escalation.......................................................52 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................56 SECTION ONE: A “SOCIAL PROFILE” OF THE ADDRESSEES OF 1 PETER Chapter 3 – The Geographical Setting of 1 Peter..............................................................58 iv A. The Local Setting of 1 Peter........................................................................................62 1. The Case for a Rural Setting...................................................................................62 2. The Case for an Urban Setting................................................................................64 B. The Impact of Roman Rule in Anatolia.......................................................................68 1. Roman Annexation.................................................................................................70 2. Roman Road-Building............................................................................................71 3. Roman Urbanization...............................................................................................74 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................83 Chapter 4 – The Addressees of 1 Peter..............................................................................85 A. Ethnic Composition.....................................................................................................85 B. Socio-Economic Status(es)..........................................................................................90 1. The Question in Recent Discussion........................................................................91 2. The Economic Situation in Roman Anatolia..........................................................98 a. Methodological Considerations........................................................................99 b. Economic Conditions in Urban Centers of Roman Anatolia..........................100 3. The Socio-Economic Status(es) of the Addressees of 1 Peter..............................110 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................121 SECTION TWO: CONTEXTUALIZING THE CONFLICT IN 1 PETER Chapter 5 – Conflict Management in Roman Anatolia...................................................124 A. Separate Action Strategies in Roman Anatolia..........................................................124 1. Physical Violence.................................................................................................125 2. Economic Oppression...........................................................................................126 3. Spiritual (or Religious) Affliction.........................................................................127 B. Third-Party Strategies in Roman Anatolia.................................................................131 1. Civic Courts..........................................................................................................133 a. Local Officials.................................................................................................134 b. Legal Jurisdiction............................................................................................139 v 2. Provincial Courts..................................................................................................146 a. Provincial Jury Courts?...................................................................................147 b. Roman Provincial Governor...........................................................................149 (1) The Office and Jurisdiction of the Governor..........................................149 (2) Legal Procedure......................................................................................161 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................169 Chapter 6 – The Legal Status of Christians in the Roman World...................................171 A. The Christian Church and the Roman State...............................................................172 1. Christian Persecution under Decius......................................................................172 2. Christian Persecution during the Second and Third Centuries CE........................178 a. Christian Martyrdom Accounts.......................................................................178 b. Imperial Rescripts...........................................................................................190 3. Christian Persecution during the First Century CE...............................................200 a. Christian Persecution during the Reign of Domitian......................................200 b. Christian Persecution during the Reign of Nero.............................................208 B. Reconciling Legal Status and Christian Persecution.................................................215 1. The Nature of the Anatolian Judicial Processes...................................................216 2. The Nature of the Relationship between Christians and Society..........................220 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................223 SECTION THREE: THE NATURE OF CONFLICT IN 1 PETER Chapter 7 – The Cause(s) of Conflict in 1 Peter..............................................................227 A. Behavioral Cause(s) of Conflict in 1 Peter................................................................227 1. Suffering from Social Withdrawal........................................................................228 a. The Problem according to 1 Peter...................................................................228 b. Social Institutions of Roman Anatolia and Christian Non-Participation........229 (1) Voluntary Associations...........................................................................230 (2) Imperial Cult...........................................................................................233 (3) Worship of the Traditional Gods.............................................................242 vi 2. Suffering for “Good Works/Doing Good”............................................................245 a. Challenging the Modern Consensus...............................................................248 b. A New Perspective on “Good Works” in 1 Peter...........................................256 B. Legal Cause(s) of Conflict in 1 Peter.........................................................................262 1. Exposing False Assumptions................................................................................264 2. The Legal Status of Christians in 1 Peter 4.16.....................................................268 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................282 Chapter 8 – The Form(s) of Conflict in 1 Peter...............................................................285 A. Explicit/Implicit Forms of Conflict in 1 Peter...........................................................286 1. Verbal Assault.......................................................................................................286 2. Physical Abuse......................................................................................................287 3. Legal Actions........................................................................................................289 a. 1 Peter 2.11-17................................................................................................289 b. 1 Peter 3.14b-16..............................................................................................295 c. 1 Peter 4.12-19................................................................................................302 B. Conjectured Forms of Conflict in 1 Peter..................................................................303 1. Spousal Tensions..................................................................................................303 2. Economic Oppression...........................................................................................308 3. Social Ostracism...................................................................................................309 4. Spiritual (or Religious) Affliction.........................................................................311 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................313 APPENDIX 1: Suffering and the Unity of 1 Peter..........................................................323 A. Precursors to the Partition Debate........................................................................323 B. Modern Partition Theories...................................................................................324 C. Towards the Modern Consensus..........................................................................329 APPENDIX 2: Roman Annexation of Asia Minor..........................................................334 APPENDIX 3: Cities of First-Century CE Anatolia........................................................345 A. Ancyra..................................................................................................................345 vii B. Comana (Hieropolis)............................................................................................349 APPENDIX 4: Ancient Economics in Recent Discussion..............................................355 A. The “Modernist” Approach of M. I. Rostovtzeff.................................................355 B. The “Primitivist” Approach of M. I. Finley.........................................................357 C. The Post-Rostovtzeffian-Finleyan Era.................................................................364 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................366 viii Acknowledgements Certainly I realize that the accomplishment of this task [of writing history] has long been demanded of me, Atticus. And I should not refuse to undertake it, if I were granted any unoccupied or leisure time. But so great a task cannot be undertaken when one’s time is filled or his attention distracted; one must be free from both work and worry . . . Odds and ends of time, as I may call them, are sometimes available . . . But an historical work cannot be commenced unless a period of leisure is arranged for in advance, nor can it be completed in a short time; and it usually disturbs my train of thought, when I have once begun a task, if I am forced to turn my attention elsewhere; nor do I find it so easy to resume an interrupted task as I do to complete at once whatever I have undertaken. (Cicero, Leg. 1.8-9; adapted from Keyes [LCL]). As one might imagine, a project such as this is not completed without considerable support. During the past three years, there have been numerous individuals and groups who have contributed to the work’s success and to whom I would like to extend my gratitude. This study was made possible in part by the generous financial support from the University of Exeter. As a result of the funding provided by the Exeter Research Scholarship, I was given “a period of leisure” (as Cicero put it) within which to pursue the present topic in the depth that it deserves. A tremendous debt of gratitude is owed to my supervisor, David G. Horrell, whose immense breadth of knowledge combined with a genuine, selfless humility is a model towards which all scholars should strive. On an academic level, his probing analysis and sage advice has helped to create a far better work than I could have otherwise hoped to produce. But what is more, on a personal level, he has been a constant source of care and support for my family. I am also grateful to Stephen Mitchell for helping to inform my ignorance of ancient Anatolia (although I must admit, I still have such a long way to go!) and for providing access to some of his pre-published inscriptional materials, and to Georgy Kantor for providing a copy of his unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Thanks must also be given to Paul A. Holloway and Todd D. Still, the external examiners of the thesis. Both offered incredibly valuable suggestions for the improvement of the study, and I am grateful for their insights. Others who have generously given their time and efforts in various ways include: Louise Lawrence, Francesca Stravrakopoulou, Siam Bhayro, and Daniel B. Wallace. ix I would especially like to thank my family who has continually offered spiritual, emotional, and financial support during the time of my graduate studies. Above all, I owe the deepest gratitude and affection to my wife, Amy, to whom this work is dedicated, and to my son, Bryce. After asking them to move halfway across the world, and despite the many hours which this task has required me to spend away from them, they have been a constant encouragement throughout this entire process, showering me with nothing but love and support. Without their sacrifice, this project would not have succeeded. x