COMPARATIVE SKELETAL ANATOMY COMPARATIVE SKELETAL ANATOMY A PHOTOGRAPHICATLAS FOR MEDICAL EXAMINERS, CORONERS, FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGISTS, ANDARCHAEOLOGISTS By BRADLEy].}loAMS, PhD OfficeofChiefMedicalExaminer, NewYork, NY PAMELA]. CRABTREE, PhD DepartmentofAnthropology, NewYork University, NewYork, NY Photographs by GINA SANTUCCI Authors Bradley1.Adams,PhD PamelaJ.Crabtree,PhD OfficeofChiefMedicalExaminer DepartmentAnthropology 5201stAvenue NewYorkUniversity NewYork,NY10016 25WaverlyPlace [email protected] NewYork,NY10003 [email protected] ISBN:978-1-58829-844-7 e-ISBN:978-1-59745-132-1 LibraryofCongress Control Number:2008921061 ©2008Humana Press,apartofSpringerScience-BusinessMedia,LLC Allrights reserved. This workmay notbetranslatedorcopied inwhole or inpartwithout the written permissionof the publisher(HumanaPress, 999Riverview Drive,Suite 208,Totowa,NJ07512 USA), except forbriefexcerpts in connectionwith reviewsor scholarly analysis. 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Printedonacid-freepaper 9 8 7 654 3 2 I springer.com PREFACE Bonesarefrequentlyencounteredinbotharchaeologicalandforensiccontexts.Ineither situation it is critical that human remains are differentiated from non-human remains.In therealmofforensicinvestigations,thisisusuallythe finaldetermination.Inthearchaeo logicalcontext,greaterprecisioninidentificationmay bewarrantedinordertodraw con clusions about ancient diets, animal husbandry and hunting practices, and environmental reconstructions.This photographicatlasisdesigned to assistthearchaeologistor forensic scientist (primarily zooarchaeologists and forensic anthropologists) in the recognition of variousspecies that are commonly encountered in bothcontexts.Obviously the abilityto differentiatebetweenthe bonesofvariousspecies(letalonesimplyhuman vs non-human bones) is dependent upon the training of the analyst, but good reference material is also essential. While there are books dedicated to human osteology and books that focus on animalosteology,there isreallynothingthatbringsthe twotogether.Itisour intenttofill this void with the compilation of photographs presented in thisatlas.Greater attention is giventothepostcranialremains, which arepresented instandardanatomicalorientations. In addition, "non-traditional" photographs of the various non-human species are also includedinanattempttobringtogetherbothanatomicalandartisticimages. For this atlas,the large, non-human mammals include: horse (Equus cabal/us),cow (Bos taurus), black bear (Ursus americanus), white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginianus), pig (Sus scrofa), goat (Capra hircus), sheep (Ovis aries), and dog (Canis familiaris). All of these are compared to a modem adult male human skeleton. The smaller non-human animals include: raccoon (Procyon lotor), opossum (Didelphis virginiana), cat (Felis eatus), rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus and Sylvilagus floridanus), turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), duck (Anas platyrhynchos), chicken (Gallus gallus), rat (Rattus norvegicus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina). All of these are compared to a modem newborn human skeleton. The first part of this book consists of a briefintroduction followed by detailed black and white photographs of the key postcranial elements from the animals listed above. In order to show size and shape variations between the human and the non-human species selected for this atlas, scaled skeletal elements are pictured side-by-side. For example, acow humerus and a human humerus are placed side-by-side in order for the reader to observe how they differ.Anterior (i.e., front or cranial in animals) and poste rior (i.e., back or caudal in animals) views of each bone are presented. In some cases, medial or lateral views are also included. The second part of the book consists ofan overview ofcommon butchering tech niques used in traditional and commercial meat processing. This is followed by photo graphs of representative butchered bones. We have included a range of different butchery marks, including both prehistoric cut marks made with stone tools and his toric cut marks made with cleavers and saws.Wehave also included examples of sawn human bones from a forensic case associated with intentional body dismemberment. Since bone was a common raw material throughout antiquity and up until the early 20th century, we have also illustrated a number ofexamples of worked bone artifacts. v VI Preface Overall, we hope that this book will fill a void in the forensic science and archaeo logical literature, presenting comparisons between human and non-human bones that are usefultothe archaeologist andforensic scientist.It isour goalthatthisbook isfrequently consulted as a laboratory and field reference guide...one that gets worn and discolored over the years from continueduse and not abook that sits idle on a book shelf. BradleyJ.Adams Pamela J.Crabtree CONTENTS Preface v About theAuthor .ix 1 Introduction 1 2 Human vs Horse 9 3 Human vs Cow 29 4 Human vs Bear 45 5 Human vs Deer 75 6 Human vs Pig 97 7 Human vsGoat 117 8 Human vs Sheep 133 9 Human vs Dog 153 10 Human vs Raccoon 177 11 Human vs Opossum 195 12 Human vsCat 217 13 Human vs Rabbit 235 14 Human vsTurkey 251 15 Human vs Duck 269 16 Human vsChicken 289 17 Miscellaneous 307 18 Traces of Butchery and Bone Working 323 19 References 347 Vll ABOUT THE AUTHORS Bradley J.Adams Bradley1.Adams receivedhisBAfromtheUniversityofKansas andhisMAandPhD degreesfromtheUniversity ofTennessee. HeiscurrentlytheDirectorof theForensic Anthropology UnitfortheOffice ofChiefMedical Examiner(OCME) inNewYorkCity. Heisalsoaffiliated withnumerous universities intheNewYork Cityarea. Inhispresent position withtheOCME, Dr.Adams andhisteamareresponsible forallforensic anthro pology casework inthefive boroughs ofNewYork City(Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, theBronx, andStatenIsland).PriortoacceptingthepositioninNewYorkCity,Dr.Adams was a forensic anthropologist and laboratory manager at the Central Identification Laboratory inHonolulu,Hawaii. PamelaJ. Crabtree Pamela1.Crabtree isanassociate professorof anthropology atNewYork University, whereshehastaughtsince1990.Herareaofspecializationiszooarchaeology, andshehas analyzeda widevarietyof faunalcollectionsfromlateprehistoricandearlymedieval Europe, the Middle East, and historic North America. Dr. Crabtree is co-author of Exploring Prehistory: HowArchaeologyReveals OurPast (2006) andsheisco-editorof AncientEurope: Encyclopedia oftheBarbarian World8000Be-AD 1000.Sheiscurrently amemberofthearchaeological teamthatissurveying theIronAgesiteofDunAilinnein Ireland. ix 1 Introduction Regardless of the context (forensic or archaeological), the correct identification of human and non-human remains is a very serious issue in osteological analyses.While the difference between various species isoften very striking, it can also be quite subtle (Figure 1-01). Case studies and text books have highlighted similarities between some species, for example the hand and foot bones (metacarpals and metatarsals) of the human hand and the bear paw intheforensic realm (Byers2005; Owsley and Mann 1990; Stewart 1979; Ubelaker 1989).These comparisons between the human and bear are also presented in Chapter 4 of this book. Sometimes the morphological similarity between species is quite unusual and counterintuitive. For example, there is a remark able correspondence between an adult human clavicle and an adult alligator femur (Figure 1-02). The goal of this book is to create a comprehensive photographic guide for use by experienced archaeologists and forensic scientists to distinguish human remains from a range of common animal species. The atlas illustrates the larger mammal species in comparison to adult human bones, while the smaller mammal, bird, and reptile species arecompared toaninfanthuman skeleton.Wehavechosentophotograph theOldWorld domesticates-cattle (Bos taurus) , sheep (Ovis aries) , goat (Capra hircus), horse (Equus caballus), and pig (Sus scroJa)- since these animals are frequently found on historic archaeological sites in North America, and they are commonly recovered from Neolithic and later sites in the Eastern Hemisphere. Furthermore,they are alsocommon in modem contexts and could easilyend upbeing submitted as aforensic case. The atlas includes three domestic bird species; two of them,chicken (Gallus gallus) and duck (Anas platyrhynchos),were initially domesticated in the Eastern Hemisphere, while the third, turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), was first domesticated by Native Americans. We have also chosen to illustrate a range of North American wild mam mals, including many that were frequently hunted by Native Americans in pre Columbianand colonial times.These include black bear(Ursusamericanus),white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginianus), raccoon (Procyon lotor),and opossum (Didelphis vir giniana).Wehave also included two species of rabbits. The smaller rabbit is the native wild rabbit or cotton-tail (Sylvilagusfloridanus), while the larger rabbit is a domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) which is originally of European origin. Commensal species are frequently found in historic-period archaeological sites, and we have illus trated two of the most common, dog (Canisfamiliarisyand cat (Felis catus).We have also included achapter of miscellaneous photographs (Chapter 17). Inthis chapter var ious views are presented of infant and adult human skeletons, selected comparisons between human and red fox (Vulpes vulpes), bobcat (Felis rufus), rat (Rattus norvegi cus),and snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina).The snapping turtle is the only reptile that is included as many of the bones are distinctive is shape and they are commonly recovered from North American archaeological sites. 1 2 AdamsandCrabtree Fig. 1-01. Comparisonfromlefttorightofinfant human,adultchicken,andadultcat rightfemora (anterior views). Mostarchaeologicalfaunalremainsaretheleftoversfromprehistoricandhistoric meals. Manyanimal bonesshowtraces ofbutcherythatreveal thewaysinwhich thecarcass was dismembered.Furthermore, it is notunusualforfoodrefusetobe mistakenfor human remains andendupinthemedicalexaminerorcoronersystem.Inthisatlaswehaveillus tratedarangeofdifferentbutchery marks andtechniques (Chapter 18),includingbothpre historiccutmarksmadewithstonetoolsandhistoriccutmarksmadewithcleaversand saws.Wehavealso includedexamplesof sawnand butcheredfaunalbones and have included schematic diagrams ofmodern, commercial butchery patterns. Sincebonewasa commonrawmaterialthroughoutantiquityandupuntiltheearly20thcentury,wehavealso illustratedanumberofexamplesofworkedboneartifacts.Finally,knifecutsandsawmarks inbonearenotuniquetonon-humanremains.Therearenumerouscaseseachyearofinten tionalbodymutilation usingknifes and/orsaws.Incasesofhuman dismemberment(usu allyimplyingsawingthroughbones)ordisarticulation(usuallyimplyingseparationbetween joints)itisquitepossiblethatabadlydecomposedorskeletonizedhumanbodyportionmay Introduction 3 Fig. 1-02. Comparison ofanadult humanclavicle withalligator andcrocodile femora; notethesim ilar morphology between thehuman andnonhuman elements.Topisalefthumanclavicle, middle is aright Crocodylus acutus femur,bottom isarightAlligatormississippiensisfemur. appearnon-humantotheuntrainedeye.Aforensicexampleofpostmortemhumandismem bermentisalsopresentedinChapter 18toshowthesimilarityoftoolmarkevidence. The ability to differentiate between completeor fragmentary human and non-human bones is dependent on the training ofthe analyst and the available reference and/or comparative material. It is truly a skill that requires years oftraining and experience and is not something that can begleaned entirely from books. There is nosubstitute for coursework and training in osteology with actual skeletal material in order to appreci ate the range ofvariation within all animal species. An experienced osteologist should always be consulted for confirmation of element type and species if there is any doubt. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT Animal bones have played critical roles in archaeological interpretation for more than one hundred and fifty years of scientific endeavors.The discovery of the bones of