interactive student edition BSCS 5415 Mark Dabling Blvd. Colorado Springs, CO 80918-3842 SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:13 AM Page 1 BSCS Biology: A Molecular Approach, 9th Edition BSCS Administrative Staff Carlo Parravano, Chair, Board of Directors Rodger W. Bybee, Executive Director Janet Carlson Powell, Director and Chief Science Education Officer Pamela Van Scotter, Director, The BSCS Center for Curriculum Development Marcia Mitchell, Director of Finance BSCS Project Staff Project Director: Rita Stephens Revision Coordinator: Dottie Watkins Production Manager: Barbara Perrin Production Staff: Stacey Luce, Lisa Rasmussen Reviewers: Mark Bloom, Steve Getty, Jerry Phillips Cover Image The cover image is a color-enhanced micrograph of pancreatic epithelial cells showing the distribution of DNA (blue), microtubules (green), and actin (purple) (�2520 at 70 mm). Copyright © 2006 BSCS. Published by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in North America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any form of reproduction or unauthorized use. Any questions regarding this policy should be addressed to: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill 8787 Orion Place Columbus, Ohio 43240-4027 ISBN 0-07-866427-6 1 2 3 4 058/111 07 06 05 04 SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/12/04 3:28 PM Page ii iii All around us, life on Earth is engaged in an ancient and delicate dance of interdependence. Although we humans are only recent partners in this performance, we are deeply involved because all life is related. We are also involved mentally because evolution has given us mental capacities that allow us to probe the complexity of life in ever-greater detail and—today—to manipulate living systems in ways that were science fiction a generation ago. And we are involved emotionally because biology engages the human spirit at very basic levels. We not only know that we are part of the living world, we feel it—in our love of animals and wilderness, in the pleasure we feel while in our gardens, and in our fascination with the primates that are our closest cousins. These days it is virtually impossible to avoid exposure to the implications of modern biology. Television news programs announce the discovery of a gene that is associated with breast cancer; newspapers report on the use of DNA analysis in criminal cases; popular magazines discuss the most recent discoveries about human evolution; and celebrities warn about over- population, starvation, and threats to tropical rain forests. Although such issues may appear unrelated at first, they illustrate a rather small number of major principles that are common to all living systems. These principles help shape our study of biology, and they provide the foundation for this book: • Evolution: patterns and products of change • Interaction and interdependence • Genetic continuity and reproduction • Growth, development, and differentiation • Energy, matter, and organization • Maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium • Science, technology, and society BSCS Blue Version approaches these seven principles largely from the perspective of molecular biology and focuses on minute structures such as cells and genes, as well as on the processes related to them. It would be a mistake, however, to assume that one can understand life on Earth only by studying its smallest parts because all of these parts and their processes ultimately exert their effects in whole organisms, which in turn interact with their external environments. This book will introduce you to some of those interactions. Equally important, BSCS Blue Version will introduce you to the nature of science. It will require you to use the intellectual tools of inquiry that are common to all of science, which is a unique and powerful system for asking questions about the natural world. As you work with your fellow students and your teacher to improve your understanding of biology, you will encounter a variety of intellectual challenges (and maybe even some frustration) about the intricacies of life on Earth. But we hope you also will find great rewards. For as you uncover some of the mysteries of living systems, you likely will develop an increased sense of wonder and respect for both life’s stunning complexity and its elegant simplicity. If we have done our job well, this book will leave you with an improved understanding of the myriad steps in life’s dance of interdependence. In addition, you will acquire the insights necessary to make informed decisions about personal and social issues that have their roots in biology, and you will acquire the skills necessary to debate those issues. We hope you, your fellow students, and your teacher will let us know whether we have accomplished our goals. We welcome your feedback, and we welcome you to the ninth edition of BSCS Blue Version. BSCS Blue Version Revision Team Jon Greenberg, Project Director FOREWORD SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:13 AM Page iii iv Prologue Biology and the Molecular Perspective . . . . .1 The New Biology—P.1 Biology in Your World, P.2 A Biological View of AIDS, P.3 Growth Hormone: New Solution, New Problem The Methods of Science—P.4 Solving Problems, P.5 A Mechanism for Evolution: Science at Work, P.6 The Theory of Natural Selection Science as a Way of Knowing—P.7 Scientific Perspectives, P.8 Your Role as a Biologist Chapter 1 The Chemistry of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 General Chemistry—1.1 Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds, 1.2 The Structure of Atoms Reactions in Living Cells—1.3 Chemical Reactions, 1.4 Chemical Bonds, 1.5 Ions and Living Cells Biochemistry—1.6 Organic Compounds and Life, 1.7 Carbohydrates, 1.8 Lipids, 1.9 Proteins, 1.10 Nucleic Acids Genetic Coding in Cells—1.11 The Double Helix, 1.12 The Functions of DNA Chapter 2 Energy, Life, and the Biosphere . . . . . . . . .50 Organisms and Energy—2.1 Characteristics of Organisms, 2.2 Energy and Nutrients, 2.3 Energy and Ecosystems Energy Flow—2.4 Energy Conversions, 2.5 Energy and Entropy Metabolism and Energy Transfer—2.6 Enzymes and Energy, 2.7 Chemical Reactions in Organisms, 2.8 Energy Transfer and ATP Digestion—2.9 Digestion Inside and Outside Cells, 2.10 An Overview of Human Digestion, 2.11 Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, and Absorption Chapter 3 Exchanging Materials with the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 Living Systems as Compartments—3.1 Exchanged Materials, 3.2 Membrane as Barrier How Cells Exchange Materials—3.3 Diffusion and Osmosis, 3.4 Passive and Active Transport Exchange in Multicellular Organisms—3.5 Gas Exchange in Water, 3.6 Adaptation to Life on Land, 3.7 Waste Removal, 3.8 Human Urinary System CONTENTS Unit 1 Energy, Matter, and Organization SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:14 AM Page iv v Chapter 4 Autotrophy: Collecting Energy from the Nonliving Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Autotrophy and Photosynthesis—4.1 What Are Autotrophs?, 4.2 Overview of Photosynthesis, 4.3 The Light Reactions, 4.4 The Calvin Cycle Photosynthesis and the Environment—4.5 Rate of Photosynthesis, 4.6 Photorespiration and Special Adaptations, 4.7 Photosynthesis and the Atmosphere Chemoautotrophy—4.8 Varieties of Chemoautotrophs, 4.9 Chemoautotrophs and the Environment Chapter 5 Cell Respiration: Releasing Chemical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . .128 An Overview of Respiration—5.1 Metabolism and Cell Respiration, 5.2 The Stages of Aerobic Respiration The Reactions of Respiration—5.3 Glycolysis, 5.4 Mitochondria and Respiration, 5.5 The Krebs Cycle, 5.6 The Electron Transport System, 5.7 Oxygen, Respiration, and Photosynthesis Respiration and Cellular Activities—5.8 The Krebs Cycle in Fat and Protein Metabolism, 5.9 Respiration and Heat Production, 5.10 Control of Respiration Chapter 6 Cell Structures and Their Functions . . . . .154 The Basic Unit of Life—6.1 Cell Study and Technology, 6.2 Two Basic Types of Cells Cell Structure—6.3 Prokaryotic Cell Structure, 6.4 Eukaryotic Cell Structure Multicellular Organization—6.5 Cooperation among Cells, 6.6 Division of Labor, 6.7 Systems Chapter 7 Transport Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184 Transport Systems in Plants—7.1 Adaptations for Life on Land, 7.2 Water Transport, 7.3 Nutrient Transport Transport Systems in Animals—7.4 Circulatory Systems, 7.5 Circulation in Vertebrates, 7.6 The Human Heart, 7.7 Molecular Basis of Muscle Contraction Regulation and Transport—7.8 Blood Pressure, 7.9 Composition of Blood, 7.10 The Circulatory System and Homeostasis Unit 2 The Cell: Homeostasis and Development SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:14 AM Page v Chapter 8 The Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212 The Life of a Eukaryotic Cell—8.1 Cell Division in Eukaryotes, 8.2 The Phases of the Cell Cycle DNA Replication—8.3 DNA Structure, 8.4 DNA Synthesis, 8.5 DNA Repair Mitosis and Cell Division—8.6 The Stages of Cell Division, 8.7 Differences in Mitosis Regulation of the Cell Cycle—8.8 Control of the Cell Cycle, 8.9 Checkpoints Chapter 9 Expressing Genetic Information . . . . . . . .232 The Genetic Code: Using Information—9.1 Genetic Material, 9.2 Importance of Proteins Transcription—9.3 RNA Synthesis, 9.4 RNA Processing Protein Synthesis—9.5 Translation, 9.6 Transport and Modification of Proteins, 9.7 Translation Errors Viruses—9.8 Genetic Information and Viruses, 9.9 Impact of Viruses Chapter 10 Animal Growth and Development . . . . . . .260 Key Events of Development—10.1 Beginnings of the Embryo, 10.2 Growth, Differentiation, and Form, 10.3 From One Cell to Many: Making the Organism Developmental Diversity—10.4 Developmental Patterns and Evolutionary Relationships, 10.5 Human Development, 10.6 Birth Defects Mechanisms of Cell Differentiation—10.7 Exploring the Mechanisms of Differentiation, 10.8 The Genetic Equivalence of Differentiating Cells, 10.9 Determination and Differentiation, 10.10 Cytoplasmic Determination, 10.11 Cell-Cell Interactions Chapter 11 Plant Growth and Development . . . . . . . .290 Plant Development—11.1 The Embryo and the Seed, 11.2 Seed Germination, 11.3 Primary and Secondary Growth Control of Growth and Development—11.4 Factors Affecting Plant Growth, 11.5 Auxins, 11.6 Other Growth Stimulants: Gibberellins and Cytokinins, 11.7 Growth Inhibitors: Abscisic Acid and Ethylene Plant Responses—11.8 Plant Movements and Growth Responses, 11.9 Photoperiodism vi SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:14 AM Page vi vii Chapter 12 Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316 Cell Division and Reproduction—12.1 Asexual Reproduction, 12.2 Chromosome Numbers, 12.3 Meiosis and the Production of Gametes Sexual Reproduction—12.4 Sexual Reproduction in Microorganisms, 12.5 Sexual Reproduction in Plants, 12.6 Sexual Reproduction in Animals Reproduction in Humans—12.7 Egg Production and the Menstrual Cycle, 12.8 Sperm Production, 12.9 Secondary Sex Characteristics, 12.10 Infertility and Contraception Chapter 13 Patterns of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342 Genes and Chromosomes—13.1 Heredity and Environment, 13.2 Mendel and the Idea of Alleles, 13.3 Genes and Chromosomes Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance—13.4 Probability and Genetics, 13.5 Inheritance of Alleles, 13.6 Sex Determination Other Patterns of Inheritance—13.7 Multiple Alleles and Alleles without Dominance, 13.8 Linked Genes, 13.9 X-Linked Traits, 13.10 Nondisjunction, 13.11 Multigene Traits Chapter 14 Other Forms of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . .368 New Explanations of Inheritance—14.1 Understanding Gene Function, 14.2 Cytoplasmic Inheritance, 14.3 Genomic Imprinting, 14.4 Epistasis Special Mechanisms of Inheritance—14.5 Genetic Anticipation, 14.6 Transposable Elements Chapter 15 Advances in Molecular Genetics . . . . . . . .390 Studying Genomes—15.1 The Genome Projects, 15.2 Functional Genomics, 15.3 Technologies Applications and Issues in Molecular Genetics—15.4 Mutations and DNA Repair, 15.5 Genetic Disorders and Gene Therapy, 15.6 Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues Unit 3 Heredity: Continuity of Life SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:15 AM Page vii Chapter 16 Population Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .416 Genetic Variation in Populations—16.1 Populations and Gene Pools, 16.2 Genetic Variation, 16.3 The Hardy-Weinberg Model Changes in Gene Pools—16.4 Microevolution in Large Populations, 16.5 Microevolution in Small Populations, 16.6 Quantitative Traits viii Chapter 17 The Origin of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .438 The Origin of Earth—17.1 The Big Bang, 17.2 Early Earth Evolution of Life on Earth—17.3 The Beginnings of Life, 17.4 Chemical Evolution, 17.5 Biological Evolution The Record of the Rocks—17.6 Microfossils and Prokaryotes, 17.7 Eukaryotes Chapter 18 Diversity and Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460 Bringing Order to Diversity—18.1 The Species Concept, 18.2 Classification and Homologies, 18.3 The Linnean Classification System, 18.4 Three Ways to Classify Species The Kingdoms of Life—18.5 Five Kingdoms, 18.6 Classification and Change A Brief Survey of Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483 Chapter 19 Changes in Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .498 Multiple Lines of Evidence—19.1 Fossil Evidence, 19.2 Evidence from Ecology and Homologies, 19.3 Genetic and Molecular Evidence Origin of Species—19.4 The Process of Speciation, 19.5 Patterns in Evolution Unit 4 Evolution SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:15 AM Page viii ix Chapter 20 Human Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518 Common Origin of Primates—20.1 Identifying Primates, 20.2 Comparing Skeletal Evidence, 20.3 Comparing Molecular Evidence, 20.4 Dating Human Fossils Human Origins and Populations—20.5 Early Hominids, 20.6 The First Humans, 20.7 Gene Pools Chapter 21 Nervous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546 Organization of the Nervous System—21.1 Sensory Systems, 21.2 Motor Systems, 21.3 The Peripheral Nervous System, 21.4 The Central Nervous System, 21.5 Cells of the Nervous System Cellular Communication—21.6 Transmission of Impulses, 21.7 Synapses, 21.8 Integration, 21.9 Drugs and the Brain Evolution of Nervous Systems—21.10 Evolutionary Trends, 21.11 Molecular Evolution of Nervous Systems Chapter 22 Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576 Major Elements of Behavior—22.1 Stimulus and Response, 22.2 Innate and Learned Behaviors Roots of Behavior—22.3 Biological Aspects of Behavior, 22.4 Environmental and Cultural Aspects of Behavior Methods of Studying Behavior—22.5 Tools for Measuring Behavior, 22.6 Genetic Methods Social Behavior—22.7 Populations and Behavior, 22.8 Animal Communication Chapter 23 Immune Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602 Protection against Infection—23.1 Immune System Functions, 23.2 Nonspecific Defenses, 23.3 Specific Defenses and Adaptive Immunity Components of the Specific Immune Response—23.4 Lymphocytes, 23.5 B Cells and the Antibody-Mediated Immune Response, 23.6 T Cells and the Cell-Mediated Immune Response, 23.7 Clonal Selection in the Immune Response, 23.8 Antibody Structure, 23.9 Generation of Antibody Diversity The Immune System in Action—23.10 Eliminating Invading Pathogens, 23.11 Regulation of the Immune System, 23.12 Malfunctions and Diseases Unit 5 Responding to the Environment SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:15 AM Page ix Chapter 24 Ecosystem Structure and Function . . . . .632 The Structure of Ecosystems—24.1 Abiotic Factors, 24.2 Energy in Food Webs, 23.3 Relationships in Ecosystems Ecosystem Dynamics—24.4 Nutrient Cycles, 24.5 Limiting Factors, 24.6 Population Dynamics Chapter 25 Change in Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650 Ecosystems in Space—25.1 Terrestrial Biomes, 25.2 Aquatic Systems Ecosystems in Time—25.3 Species on the Move, 25.4 Succession Human Interactions with Ecosystems—25.5 Dependence, 25.6 Dominance, 25.7 Sustainability Biological Challenges Careers Biology, Ethics, and Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Technology The Scanning Tunneling Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Research Identification of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Research Understanding Cystic Fibrosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 Discoveries The Secret of Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Research Energy Regulation and Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Discoveries The Cell Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 Discoveries Discovering the Secret of Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 Research Chromosome Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 Discoveries Learning the Language of Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239 Discoveries Molecules and Muscle Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286 Research Control of Organ Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307 Research Cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321 Research The Human Genome Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350 Research Medicine and Mitochondria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376 Technology The Polymerase Chain Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401 Research QTL Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432 x Unit 6 Interactions and Interdependence SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:15 AM Page x xi Technology Using Radioactivity to Date Earth Materials . . . . . . . . . .442 Research Classification of the Giant Panda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473 Research Archaea and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481 Discoveries Soft-Tissue Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502 Research Mass Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .512 Discoveries The Mother of Us All? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528 Discoveries Learning and Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558 Research Teaching Language to Nonhuman Primates . . . . . . . . . . .598 Research Susumu Tonegawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618 Technology Robots for Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644 Research The Atmosphere in Danger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673 Theory Theory in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Materialism and Vitalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 Engineering Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276 What is a Gene? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412 The Theory of Punctuated Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .514 Sociobiology: An Evolutionary Theory of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594 Organism Earth: The Gaia Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .676 Laboratory Investigations Introduction to Laboratory Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680 PA Analyzing Ethical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689 PB Scientific Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690 PC The Compound Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691 PD Developing Concept Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694 1A Organisms and pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .696 1B Compounds of Living Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .698 2A Are Corn Seeds Alive? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700 2B Food Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702 2C Enzyme Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704 SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:16 AM Page xi 2D Starch Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707 3A Cells and Movement of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .709 3B Diffusion and Cell Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .712 3C The Kidney and Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .713 4A Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .714 4B Rate of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716 4C Chemoautotrophs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718 5A How Does Oxygen Affect Cells? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719 5B Rates of Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720 6A Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .723 6B From One Cell to Many . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .725 7A Water Movement in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .726 7B Exercise and Pulse Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729 8A DNA Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730 8B Mitotic Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .731 9A Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .732 9B Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733 10A Development in Polychaete Worms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736 11A Seeds and Seedlings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .737 11B Tropisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .739 12A A Model of Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .741 12B The Yeast Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .743 12C Reproduction in Mosses and Flowering Plants . . . . . . . . . . . .746 13A Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .748 13B Seedling Phenotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749 13C A Dihybrid Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .751 14A Jumping Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755 15A Determining Mutation Frequency in Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . .756 16A Sickle-Cell Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758 17A Molecular Evolution in the Test Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .760 17B Coacervates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762 18A Using Cladistics to Construct Evolutionary Trees . . . . . . . . .763 18B Structural Characteristics of Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .764 19A Geological Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767 xii SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:16 AM Page xii xiii 19B A Model Gene Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768 20A Interpretation of Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770 20B Archaeological Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .774 21A Sensory Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777 21B Reaction Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778 22A A Lesson in Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780 22B Trial-and-Error Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781 22C A Field Study of Animal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .782 23A Antigen-Antibody Binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .783 23B Antibody Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .787 24A Producers in an Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .789 24B Relationships between a Plant and an Animal . . . . . . . . . . . .791 25A Producers in an Aquatic Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792 25B Ecosystem Diversity within a Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .794 Appendices 1A The Periodic Table of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798 1B Radioisotopes and Research in Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798 4A ATP Synthesis in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria . . . . . . . . . .800 6A Preparing Cells for Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800 12A Pollination by Insects Aids Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801 13A The Chi-Square Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802 13B Gene Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803 20A Physical Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804 20B The Old Man from La Chapelle-aux-Saints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805 20C Cultural Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806 22A Innate Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806 23A Antibody Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807 23B Generating Antibody Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .808 Glossary/Glosario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .810 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849 SWP2618_FM_i-xv 10/8/04 5:16 AM Page xiii