George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God ATHEISM: The Case Against God George H. Smith VERSION 1.1 (JAN 2003) – Proofed and Formatted by <Bibliophile>. 1 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God Contents Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................4 Part One - Atheism And God.............................................................................................................................................6 I - The Scope of Atheism..............................................................................................................................................7 1. - The Myths of Atheism.......................................................................................................................................7 2. - The Meaning of Atheism....................................................................................................................................9 3. - Agnosticism.....................................................................................................................................................10 4. - The Varieties of Atheism.................................................................................................................................12 5. - Jacques Maritain and the Slander of Atheism..................................................................................................15 6. - What Atheism Is Not........................................................................................................................................16 7. - The Significance of Atheism............................................................................................................................18 8. - Theism on the Defense.....................................................................................................................................19 II - The Concept of God..............................................................................................................................................21 1. - The Meaning of “God”.....................................................................................................................................21 2. - Atheism and the Concept of God.....................................................................................................................26 III - The God of Christianity.......................................................................................................................................30 1. - An Escape from Agnosticism...........................................................................................................................30 2. - Knowing the Christian God..............................................................................................................................32 3. - God and Intelligibility......................................................................................................................................37 4. - God, Being and Existence................................................................................................................................38 5. - The Powers of God...........................................................................................................................................42 6. - God and Goodness...........................................................................................................................................45 7. - The Collapse Into Agnosticism........................................................................................................................51 Part Two - Reason, Faith And Revelation........................................................................................................................54 IV - Reason Versus Faith............................................................................................................................................55 1. - Clarifying the Issue..........................................................................................................................................55 2. - The Attack on Reason......................................................................................................................................57 3. - The Nature of the Conflict...............................................................................................................................58 4. - Rejoinders and Arguments...............................................................................................................................62 5. - The Dilemma of Faith......................................................................................................................................70 V - The Skepticism of Faith........................................................................................................................................71 1. - Spheres of Influence.........................................................................................................................................71 2. - Universal Skepticism.......................................................................................................................................74 3. - The Contextual Nature of Knowledge..............................................................................................................76 4. - Skepticism and the Primacy of Faith................................................................................................................79 5. - Skepticism and Sense Perception.....................................................................................................................83 VI - The Varieties of Faith..........................................................................................................................................91 1. - The Bible, Faith and Misology.........................................................................................................................91 2. - Faith as Authoritative Trust..............................................................................................................................94 3. - Voluntarist Theories of Faith.........................................................................................................................100 4. - The End of Faith.............................................................................................................................................104 VII. - Revelation........................................................................................................................................................106 1 - The Bible.........................................................................................................................................................106 2 - Miracles...........................................................................................................................................................115 Part Three - The Arguments For God............................................................................................................................121 VIII. - Natural Theology...........................................................................................................................................122 1 - The Final Appeal.............................................................................................................................................122 2 - The Conditions of Proof..................................................................................................................................123 3 - “God” as an Explanatory Concept...................................................................................................................125 2 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God IX. - The Cosmological Arguments..........................................................................................................................130 1 - The First Cause Argument..............................................................................................................................130 2 - The Sustaining First Cause..............................................................................................................................134 3 - The Contingency Argument............................................................................................................................137 4 - The Entropy Argument...................................................................................................................................139 X. - The Design Arguments......................................................................................................................................142 1 - The Teleological Argument............................................................................................................................142 2 - The Analogical Argument...............................................................................................................................144 3 - The Argument from Life.................................................................................................................................148 Part Four - God - The Practical Consequences..............................................................................................................151 XI. - Ethics, Rationality, and Religion......................................................................................................................152 1 - Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................152 2 - The Science of Ethics......................................................................................................................................154 3 - Normative Ethics and Meta-ethics..................................................................................................................159 4 - Rational Morality............................................................................................................................................160 XII. - The Sins of Christianity...................................................................................................................................163 1 - Religious Morality..........................................................................................................................................163 2 - The Conflicting Virtues...................................................................................................................................167 3 - The Ethics of Jesus..........................................................................................................................................171 3 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God Introduction Does a god exist? This question has undoubtedly been asked, in one form or another, since man has had the ability to communicate. Men have pondered the question, discussed it, argued it, and killed over it. It appears to be a simple question calling for a simple answer, but its simplicity is deceptive. Thousands of volumes have been written on the subject of a god, and the vast majority have answered the question with a resounding “Yes!” You are about to read a minority viewpoint. This book is a presentation and defense of atheism. This is not a sympathetic examination or interpretation of religious doctrines; it is a straightforward critique, philosophically and psychologically, of the belief in a god, especially as manifested in Christianity. The subtitle—The Case Against God—has a twofold meaning: first, it refers to the philosophical case against the concept god; and, secondly, it refers to the psychological case against the belief in a god. As a philosopher, I am continually amazed by the credence given to religious claims in the intellectual community; and, as a human being, I am appalled by the psychological damage caused by religious teachings—damage that often takes years to counteract. Atheism, even in today’s “liberal” atmosphere, is still somewhat unacceptable. Simply being an atheist may be acceptable—if, that is, one keeps it to oneself. What is frequently considered inappropriate is to advertise this fact, or openly to attack religious doctrines. Thus, some excellent critiques of theistic belief have been written by philosophers who, for reasons known best to themselves, refuse to acknowledge that what they are advocating is, in fact, atheism. And we also have the unfortunate spectacle of the philosopher who, after demolishing the idea of god philosophically, goes on to assure his audience, with a gesture of glib modesty, that he has merely presented his own opinion, and that he is not so presumptuous as to suggest that his listeners should abandon their belief in god. Finally, there is the philosopher or psychologist who, while openly admitting the irrationality of theistic belief, actually recommends it as a kind of therapeutic device designed to give emotional aid and comfort to mankind—thus lending support to the myth that the average man is emotionally incapable of facing facts. It is my firm conviction that man has nothing to gain, emotionally or otherwise, by adhering to a falsehood, regardless of how comfortable or sacred that falsehood may appear. Anyone who claims, on the one hand, that he is concerned with human welfare, and who demands, on the other hand, that man must suspend or renounce the use of his reason, is contradicting himself. There can be no knowledge of what is good for man apart from knowledge of reality and human nature—and there is no manner in which this knowledge can be acquired except through reason. To advocate irrationality is to advocate that which is destructive to human life. It is not my purpose to convert people to atheism; such efforts are usually futile. It is my purpose, however, to demonstrate that the belief in god is irrational to the point of absurdity; and that this irrationality, when manifested in specific religions such as Christianity, is extremely harmful. In other words, I have attempted to remove the veneer of intellectual and moral respectability that often enshrouds the notion of a god. If a person wishes to continue believing in a god, that is his prerogative, but he can no longer excuse his belief in the name of reason and moral necessity. 4 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God Although this book is intended primarily for laymen, it is impossible to avoid some degree of technicality due to the complexity of many religious doctrines. A writer cannot make an issue simpler than it really is; all he can do—and what I have attempted to do—is to present the relevant issues as succinctly and clearly as possible, discussing them in terms of their fundamentals, while remaining fair to the various sides under consideration. It is also impossible, within the scope of one book, to consider every argument ever presented in favor of theistic belief, or to answer every objection that might be raised against atheism, so I have necessarily restricted this discussion to those issues which I consider most important. This book is divided into four major parts. In Part One, I discuss the nature of theism, atheism and agnosticism, and I present the insurmountable problems and contradictions entailed by the concept of god. In Part Two, I discuss the nature of reason, demonstrating its incompatibility with faith and revelation. In Part Three, I consider the most significant attempts to demonstrate the existence of a supernatural being through an appeal to reason, showing how each alleged proof fails totally to make its case. In Part Four, I discuss the harmful effects of religion in general, and Christianity in particular, upon morality and the attainment of man’s happiness and well-being on earth. My approach to atheism is eclectic in the sense that I draw from many different sources in defense of various positions. In no instance, however, should it be assumed that my use of a source implies an agreement with the atheistic position by that source. Similarly, my use of an author in support of a particular position implies my agreement to that extent only, and in no case should further agreement be assumed. Also, it is necessary to mention that I employ the term “god” in two different ways. I use it with a lower case “g” (god) to refer to the generic idea of a god, i.e., the general notion of a supernatural being, apart from any specific characteristics. I use the term “God” (with an upper case “G”) to refer specifically to the God of Christianity, along with its various attributes, such as omnipotence, omniscience and so forth. This unusual method provides me with a simple means of indicating, in any given context, whether I am referring to the idea of god in general or to the idea of the Christian God in particular. Finally, I wish to thank the many people who aided in the preparation of this book, who are unfortunately too numerous to be listed individually. I wish, however, to express my appreciation to two people who were especially instrumental in the writing of this book: Roy Childs, without whom the first line would never have been written; and Sylvia Cross, my editor, without whom the last line would never have been written. George H. Smith April 1973 Los Angeles 5 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God Part One - Atheism And God I put the following work under your protection. It contains my opinion upon religion. You will do me the justice to remember, that I have always strenuously supported the right of every man to his opinion, however different that opinion might be to mine. He who denies to another this right, makes a slave of himself to his present opinion, because he precludes himself the right of changing it. The most formidable weapon against errors of every kind is reason. I have never used any other, and I trust I never shall. —Thomas Paine, Age of Reason 6 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God I - The Scope of Atheism 1. - The Myths of Atheism The fool says in his heart, “There is no God.” They are corrupt, they do abominable deeds, there is none that does good. (Psalms 14. I)1 This frequently quoted passage captures the essence of how the average religious person views atheism. Atheism is probably the least popular—and least understood—philosophical position in America today. It is often approached with fear and mistrust, as if one were about to investigate a doctrine that advocates a wide assortment of evils—from immorality, pessimism and communism to outright nihilism. Atheism is commonly considered to be a threat to the individual and society. It is “science divorced from wisdom and the fear of God,” writes one philosopher, “which the world has directly to thank for the worst evils of ‘modern war’....”2 In a recent critique of atheism, Vincent P. Miceli claims that “every form of atheism, even the initially well intentioned, constricts, shrinks, enslaves the individual atheist within and against himself and, eventually, as atheism reaches plague proportions among men, goes on to enslave and murder society.”3 Through similar representations of atheism as an evil, destructive force, religionists throughout history have prescribed various forms of punishment for atheists. Plato, in his construction of the ideal state, made “impiety” a crime punishable by five years imprisonment for the first offense and death upon a second conviction.4 Jesus, who is offered as the paradigm of love and compassion, threatened that nonbelievers will be thrown “into the furnace of fire” where “men will weep and gnash their teeth,” just as “the weeds are gathered and burned with fire. ...” (Matthew 13:40-42). Thomas Aquinas, the great medieval theologian, taught that “the sin of unbelief is greater than any sin that occurs in the perversion of morals,”5 and he recommended that the heretic “be exterminated from the world by death” after the third offense.6 Although the atheist now enjoys a comparative amount of freedom in the United States, the struggle for the legal rights of the atheist has been a difficult, continuous battle. For example, until the early part of this century, many states would not permit an atheist to testify in court, which meant that an atheist could not effectively file civil and criminal charges. The reasoning behind this prohibition was that, since the atheist does not believe in rewards and punishments after death, he will not feel morally obligated to tell the truth in a court of law. In 1871, the Supreme Court of Tennessee published this remarkable statement: 1 Unless otherwise noted, all biblical quotations in this book are from the Revised Standard Version (1952). 2 A.E. Taylor, Does God Exist? (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1947), pp. 158-159. 3 Vincent P. Miceli, S. J., The Gods of Atheism (New Rochelle: Arlington House, 1971), p. 19. 4 Plato, Laws, translated by Benjamin Jowett, Great Books of the Western World (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1952), Vol. 7, pp. 769-770. 5 Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province, revised by Daniel J. Sullivan, Great Books of the Western World (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1952), Second Part, Pt. II, Q. 10, A. 3. 6 Ibid., Q. 11, A. 3. 7 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God The man who has the hardihood to avow that he does not believe in a God, shows a recklessness of moral character and utter want of moral responsibility, such as very little entitles him to be heard or believed in a court of justice in a country designated as Christian.7 Here we have the stereotype of the atheist as an insensitive, amoral cynic—a portrayal that remains widespread in our own time. Atheism, it is charged, is nothing but pure negativism: it destroys but does not rebuild. The atheist is pitted against morality itself, and the struggle between belief in a god and godlessness is viewed as a struggle between good and evil. If true, atheism is claimed to have ominous implications on a cosmic scale. A.E. Taylor expresses the fear of many theists when he writes: “... even in our hours of most complete and serenest intellectual detachment we cannot escape facing the question whether God can be eliminated from either the natural or the moral world without converting both into an incoherent nightmare.”8 This image of a godless world is only one among many. Atheism has become so enshrouded with myths and misconceptions that many supposed critiques of atheism are notable for their complete irrelevancy. Some religious critics prefer to attack the unpopular ideas associated with atheism rather than face the challenge of atheism directly. Indeed, it is not uncommon to find entire books with the expressed intent of demolishing atheism, but which fail to discuss such basic issues as why one should believe in a god at all. These books are content to identify atheism with specific personalities (such as Nietzsche, Marx, Camus and Sartre) and, by criticizing the views of these individuals, the religionist author fancies himself to have destroyed atheism. In most cases, however, the critic has not even discussed atheism. Presenting the atheistic point of view is a difficult, frustrating endeavor. The atheist must penetrate the barrier of fear and suspicion that confronts him, and he must convince the listener that atheism represents, not a degeneration, but a step forward. This often requires the atheist to take a defensive position to explain why atheism does not lead to disastrous consequences. The atheist is expected to answer a barrage of questions, of which the following are typical. Without god, what is left of morality? Without god, what purpose is there in man’s life? If we do not believe in god, how can we be certain of anything? If god does not exist, whom can we turn to in a time of crisis? If there is no afterlife, who will reward virtue and punish injustice? Without god, how can we resist the onslaught of atheistic communism? If god does not exist, what becomes of the worth and dignity of each person? Without god, how can man achieve happiness? These and similar questions reflect an intimate connection between religion and values in the minds of many people. As a result, the question of god’s existence becomes more than a simple philosophical problem—and atheism, since it is interpreted as an attack on these values, assumes a significance far beyond its actual meaning. Defenses of religion are frequently saturated with emotional outbursts, and the atheist finds himself morally condemned, diagnosed as a confused, unhappy man, and threatened with a variety of future punishments. Meanwhile, the atheist’s frustration increases as he discovers that his arguments for atheism are futile, that the average believer—who was persuaded to believe for emotional, not intellectual, reasons—is impervious to arguments against the existence of a supernatural being, regardless of 7 Quoted in Frank Swancara, The Separation of Religion and Government (New York: Truth Seeker Co., 1950), p. 140. 8 Taylor, Does God Exist? p. 1. 8 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God how meticulous and carefully reasoned these arguments may be. There is too much at stake: if the choice must be made between the comfort of religion and the truth of atheism, many people will sacrifice the latter without hesitation. From their perspective, there is much more to the issue of god’s existence than whether he exists or not. Where does this leave the atheist? Must he offer atheism as an alternative way of life to religion, complete with its own set of values? Is atheism a substitute for religion? Can atheism fulfill the moral and emotional needs of man? Must the atheist defend himself against every accusation of immorality and pessimism? Does atheism offer any positive values? These questions are not as complex as they may appear. Atheism is a straightforward, easily definable position, and it is a simple task to outline what atheism can and cannot accomplish. In order to understand the scope of atheism, however, we must remove the wall of myths surrounding it—with the hope that the fears and prejudices against atheism will collapse as well. To accomplish this goal, we must determine what atheism is and what atheism is not. 2. - The Meaning of Atheism “Theism” is defined as the “belief in a god or gods.” The term “theism” is sometimes used to designate the belief in a particular kind of god—the personal god of monotheism—but as used throughout this book, “theism” signifies the belief in any god or number of gods. The prefix “a” means “without,” so the term “a-theism” literally means “without theism,” or without belief in a god or gods. Atheism, therefore, is the absence of theistic belief. One who does not believe in the existence of a god or supernatural being is properly designated as an atheist. Atheism is sometimes defined as “the belief that there is no God of any kind,”9 or the claim that a god cannot exist. While these are categories of atheism, they do not exhaust the meaning of atheism—and they are somewhat misleading with respect to the basic nature of atheism. Atheism, in its basic form, is not a belief: it is the absence of belief. An atheist is not primarily a person who believes that a god does not exist; rather, he does not believe in the existence of a god. As here defined, the term “atheism” has a wider scope than the meanings usually attached to it. The two most common usages are described by Paul Edwards as follows: “First, there is the familiar sense in which a person is an atheist if he maintains that there is no God, where this is taken to mean that “God exists” expresses a false proposition. Secondly, there is also a broader sense in which a person is an atheist if he rejects belief in God, regardless of whether his rejection is based on the view that belief in God is false.”10 Both of these meanings are important kinds of atheism, but neither does justice to atheism in its widest sense. “Atheism” is a privative term, a term of negation, indicating the opposite of theism. If we use the phrase “belief-in-god” as a substitute for theism, we see that its negation is “no-belief- in-god”—or, in other words, “a-theism.” This is simply another way of stating “without theism” or the absence of belief in god. “Theism” and “atheism” are descriptive terms: they specify the presence or absence of a belief in god. If a person is designated as a theist, this tells us that he believes in a god, not why he believes. 9 John Hick, Philosophy of Religion (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963), p. 4. 10 Paul Edwards, “Some Notes on Anthropomorphic Theology,” Religious Experience and Truth, edited by Sidney Hook (New York: New York University Press, 1961), pp. 241-242. 9 George H. Smith – ATHEISM: The Case Against God If a person is designated as an atheist, this tells us that he does not believe in a god, not why he does not believe. There are many reasons why one may not believe in the existence of a god: one may have never encountered the concept of god before, or one may consider the idea of a supernatural being to be absurd, or one may think that there is no evidence to support the belief in a god. But regardless of the reason, if one does not believe in the existence of a god, one is an atheist; i.e., one is without theistic belief. In this context, theism and atheism exhaust all possible alternatives with regard to the belief in a god: one is either a theist or an atheist; there is no other choice. One either accepts the proposition “god exists” as true, or one does not. One either believes in a supernatural being, or one does not. There is no third option or middle ground. This immediately raises the question of agnosticism, which has traditionally been offered as a third alternative to theism and atheism. 3. - Agnosticism The term “agnostic” was coined by Thomas Huxley in 1869. “When I reached intellectual maturity,” reports Huxley, “and began to ask myself whether I was an atheist, a theist, or a pantheist ... I found that the more I learned and reflected, the less ready was the answer.” According to Huxley, exponents of these doctrines, despite their obvious differences, share a common assumption, an assumption with which he disagrees: “They were quite sure they had attained a certain “gnosis,”—had, more or less successfully, solved the problem of existence; while I was quite sure I had not, and had a pretty strong conviction that the problem was insoluble.”11 When Huxley joined the Metaphysical Society, he found that the various beliefs represented there had names: “most of my colleagues were -ists of one sort or another.” Huxley, lacking a name for his uncertainty, was “without a rag of a label to cover himself with.” He was a fox without a tail—so he gave himself a tail by assigning the term “agnostic” to himself. It seems that Huxley originally meant this term as somewhat of a joke. He selected the early religious sect known as “Gnostics” as a prime example of men who claim knowledge of the supernatural without justification; and he distinguished himself as an “agnostic” by stipulating that the supernatural, even if it exists, lies beyond the scope of human knowledge. We cannot say if it does or does not exist, so we must suspend judgment. Since Huxley’s time, “agnosticism” has acquired a number of different applications based on its etymological derivation from the negative “a” and the Greek root gnosis (“to know”). Agnosticism, as a general term, now signifies the impossibility of knowledge in a given area. An agnostic is a person who believes that something is inherently unknowable by the human mind. When applied to the sphere of theistic belief, an agnostic is one who maintains that some aspect of the supernatural is forever closed to human knowledge. Properly considered, agnosticism is not a third alternative to theism and atheism because it is concerned with a different aspect of religious belief. Theism and atheism refer to the presence or absence of belief in a god; agnosticism refers to the impossibility of knowledge with regard to a god or supernatural being. 11 Thomas H. Huxley, “Agnosticism,” Collected Essays (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1894), Vol. V, pp. 237-238. 10