Appropriate Technology and Adoption of Water Conservation Practices: Case Study of Greywater Reuse in Guelph By Matthew John De Luca A Thesis presented to The University of Guelph In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering Guelph, Ontario, Canada © Matthew J. De Luca, April, 2012 ABSTRACT APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY AND ADOPTION OF WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES: CASE STUDY OF GREYWATER REUSE IN GUELPH Matthew John De Luca Advisor: University of Guelph, 2012 Khosrow Farahbakhsh, Ph.D., P.Eng This study investigates the appropriateness of greywater reuse technologies in Canada. To design a technology to appropriately meet a user’s needs the approach must conform to existing technical, cultural, economic, environmental, and social conditions. The appropriateness of two greywater reuse systems (GWRS) were investigated according to three criteria; reliability/soundness/flexibility, affordability, and sustainability. The GWRS reduced water consumption from 9-20% of total household use, and often met required fecal coliforms concentrations at several sites. However, the study revealed that neither GWRS met all the appropriate technology criteria and significant barriers preventing greywater reuse were identified. Both GWRS produced effluent that largely did not meet current regulations, were prone to mechanical failure, and did not provide any financial benefits, resulting in a varied level of acceptance among users. In addition, the systems resulted in increased green house gas emissions. The study also concluded that the regulations governing greywater quality for toilet flushing and the technology’s robustness must be further refined. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Had it not been for the guidance and support of many people this thesis would not exist. Thank you all sincerely for your time and effort. This experience has redefined who I am, and how I will proceed throughout my life. My advisor, Dr. Khosrow Farahbakhsh, P.Eng, has provided me with invaluable mentorship over the last two years. I thank him for giving me the opportunity to be involved in this research project, and rise to this great challenge. I am forever grateful for his feedback, energy, and generosity. Also, the insightful feedback that Dr. Doug Joy, P.Eng, and Dr. David Lubitz, P.Eng provided on this thesis was greatly appreciated. I am also indebted to Joanne Ryks and Joel Citulski who provided me with extensive training and support in the lab. I would like to thank my undergraduate research assistants, Allan Brett and Cody Murray, for their hard work and help in the lab. This project was made possible through funding provided by the Federation of Canadian Municipalities, City of Guelph, and the Ontario Centres of Excellence. The City of Guelph and its employees, Wayne Galiher, Jennifer Gilks, Paul Wortman, and Kelly Kamo McHugh, were a vital partner and resource. This research would not have been possible without the involvement of the dedicated greywater pilot project participants. Guelph Campus Coop, Gavin, Ben, Wayne, Mike and Louis, thank you for warmly welcoming me into your homes and lives. Margaret Hundleby thank you for giving me the confidence I needed to continue writing and to forge on. Also, my family who provided critical feedback on my thesis and presentation, and continued encouragement. Finally, Renata thank you for being so patient during the last two years. Always lending an ear, encouragement, and advice, “Work is not a wolf, and will not run to the forest.” iii Table of Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Water Conservation and the City of Guelph .................................................................... 1 1.2 Greywater and its Reuse ................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Appropriate Technology and Fostering Sustainable Behaviour ...................................... 4 1.4 The Study Goals and Tasks .............................................................................................. 5 2. Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Appropriate Technology .................................................................................................. 7 2.1.1 Reliability, Soundness, and Flexibility ..................................................................... 9 2.1.2 Affordability ............................................................................................................. 9 2.1.3 Sustainability........................................................................................................... 11 2.1.4 Local Acceptance and Users Needs ........................................................................ 12 2.2 Greywater Quality .......................................................................................................... 12 2.2.1 Greywater Reuse ..................................................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Greywater Reuse for Agriculture ............................................................................ 15 2.2.3 Health Concerns and Exposure Pathways............................................................... 17 2.3 Quality Guidelines and Regulation Issues ..................................................................... 19 2.4 Current Greywater Reuse Technologies ........................................................................ 20 2.5 Social Acceptance and Encouraging Sustainable Behaviour ......................................... 23 2.5.1 Water Reclamation Social Acceptance Case Studies ............................................. 23 2.5.2 Greywater Reuse: Spanish Case Study ................................................................... 25 2.5.3 Factors Effecting Greywater Reuse Social Acceptance .......................................... 27 2.5.4 Community-Based Social Marketing ...................................................................... 28 2.6 Summary of the Literature ............................................................................................. 30 3. Research Methodology .......................................................................................................... 32 iv 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 32 3.2 Reliability, Soundness, and Flexibility .......................................................................... 33 3.2.1 Greywater Quality and Reuse Performance Monitoring Program .......................... 33 3.2.2 Greywater Reuse Technologies Used ..................................................................... 34 3.2.3 Sample Collection and Laboratory Analysis .......................................................... 35 3.3 Affordability Analysis .................................................................................................... 38 3.3.1 Payback on Investment Period ................................................................................ 38 3.3.2 Cost Comparison of Water Conservation Methods ................................................ 39 3.4 Sustainability .................................................................................................................. 40 3.4.1 Greywater Reuse System Preliminary Life Cycle Assessment .............................. 41 3.5 Qualitative Analysis: the Users and their Greywater Systems ....................................... 42 3.5.1 City of Guelph Survey ............................................................................................ 42 3.5.2 City of Guelph Focus Group ................................................................................... 42 3.5.3 University of Guelph Survey .................................................................................. 43 4. Reliability, Soundness, and Flexibility .................................................................................. 45 4.1 Greywater Quality Results ............................................................................................. 45 4.1.1 Variability of Untreated Greywater ........................................................................ 45 4.1.2 Treated Greywater .................................................................................................. 49 4.1.3 Reliability Greywater Reuse System #1 ................................................................. 51 4.1.4 Reliability of Greywater Reuse System #2 ............................................................. 55 4.1.5 Consistency of Water Quality Analysis .................................................................. 56 4.1.6 Quantity of Greywater Reused for Toilet Flushing ................................................ 57 4.2 Greywater Quality Program and Health Canada Guidelines ......................................... 59 4.2.1 Indicator Organisms ................................................................................................ 60 4.3 Qualitative Information Regarding GWRS Reliability, Soundness, and Flexibility ..... 62 v 4.3.1 City of Guelph Survey ............................................................................................ 62 4.3.2 University of Guelph Survey .................................................................................. 64 4.3.3 City of Guelph Focus Groups ................................................................................. 66 4.4 Evaluation of GWRS Reliability, Soundness, and Flexibility ....................................... 68 5. Affordability .......................................................................................................................... 69 5.1 Cost of Water in Canada ................................................................................................ 69 5.2 Greywater Reuse System’s Payback on Investment ...................................................... 74 5.3 Cost Comparison of Other Water Conservation Methods ............................................. 79 5.4 Qualitative Findings Regarding Affordability ............................................................... 81 5.4.1 City of Guelph Survey – Perceptions of Water Savings ......................................... 81 5.4.2 University of Guelph Survey .................................................................................. 82 5.4.3 Focus Groups .......................................................................................................... 83 5.4.4 Summary of Qualitative Data Regarding Affordability.......................................... 84 5.5 Evaluation of GWRS Affordability................................................................................ 85 6. Sustainability ......................................................................................................................... 86 6.1 Community Acceptance ................................................................................................. 86 6.1.1 Target Consumer and Their Needs ......................................................................... 87 6.1.2 Technology Transfer Mechanisms and Qualitative Information ............................ 89 6.1.3 Overall Satisfaction ................................................................................................. 92 6.2 Traditional Water Distribution verses Decentralized Water Strategies ......................... 93 6.3 Preliminary Lifecycle Assessment (PLCA) ................................................................... 94 6.3.1 Goal and Scope of the PLCA .................................................................................. 95 6.3.2 PLCA Results.......................................................................................................... 95 6.4 Evaluation of GWRS Sustainability ............................................................................... 97 7. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 98 vi 7.1 GWRS as an Appropriate Technology ........................................................................... 98 7.2 Barriers to Greywater Reuse .......................................................................................... 99 7.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 100 7.4 Future Research ............................................................................................................ 103 8. Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 104 Appendix A – Quantitative Data................................................................................................. 116 Appendix B – Qualitative Surveys ............................................................................................. 124 City of Guelph Residential Greywater Reuse Pilot Program .................................................. 125 Greywater Reuse Survey - University of Guelph.................................................................... 129 City of Guelph Focus Group Survey ....................................................................................... 135 Appendix C – Preliminary Life Cycle Assessment .................................................................... 146 Goal and Scope of the PLCA .................................................................................................. 146 Functional unit......................................................................................................................... 146 System boundaries and process flowchart .............................................................................. 146 Assumptions and limitations ................................................................................................... 149 Impact categories and impact assessment method .................................................................. 149 PLCA Calculations .................................................................................................................. 150 Appendix D – All Greywater Quality Data Collected From Each Site ..................................... 151 vii List of Tables Table 1. Criteria for Appropriate Technology ................................................................................ 8 Table 2. Comparison of Greywater Properties. ............................................................................ 13 Table 3. Ontario Building Code 2006 - Permitted uses for greywater. ........................................ 15 Table 4. Ranges of indicator bacteria reported in untreated greywater ....................................... 18 Table 5. Health Canada guidelines for reclaimed water used in toilet and urinal flushing ......... 20 Table 6. Performance of different physical treatment systems. .................................................... 22 Table 7. Performance of different biological treatment systems .................................................. 22 Table 8. Behavioural Factors Affecting Greywater Reuse. .......................................................... 28 Table 9. Greywater Reuse Behaviour Matrix ............................................................................... 29 Table 10. Strategies for Fostering Greywater Reuse .................................................................... 30 Table 11. Appropriate Technology Criteria and Evaluation for Study ......................................... 33 Table 12. Greywater Reuse System General Information and Components ................................ 34 Table 13. Number of grab samples taken from each location and site descriptions. .................... 35 Table 14. Description of water quality characteristics and metering that were monitored .......... 37 Table 15. The different cases used for POI calculations for each of the two scenarios. .............. 39 Table 16. Cost and water conserving effectiveness for different water conservation methods. ... 40 Table 17. Raw Shower Water Quality and Affecting Factors ...................................................... 46 Table 18. Reliability of GWRS #1 (Sites 1-4). ............................................................................. 52 Table 19. Reliability of the GWRS #2 (Site 5). ............................................................................ 55 Table 20. Volume of Greywater and City Water Used for Toilet Flushing ................................. 57 Table 21. Toilets Fecal Coliform Comparison ............................................................................. 61 Table 22. Failure mode and effect analysis .................................................................................. 65 Table 23. Comments from the focus group users on their experiences with the GWRS #1 ........ 66 Table 24. Water Values Indentified by Households ..................................................................... 73 Table 25. Examples of payback on investment periods for various appliances ........................... 75 Table 26. Customer Characteristics .............................................................................................. 87 Table 27.Comparision table of water quality results collected from each GWRS site .............. 116 Table 28.Consistency Testing Results Using Paired T-Test ....................................................... 120 Table 29. Data used for payback on investment (POI) calculations ........................................... 121 Table 30. Cost Comparison of Three Water Conservation Methods. ......................................... 122 Table 31. Cost Comparison of Mega Infrastructure Projects to Decentralized GWR ................ 123 Table 32. Greywater Reuse Barriers and Future Opportunities .................................................. 124 Table 33. Preliminary Life Cycle Analysis Calculation Tables ................................................. 150 viii List of Figures Figure 1.Average Guelph citizen’s residential water usage habits ................................................. 2 Figure 2. Diagram of water reuse pathway and an example of GWRS #1 and GWRS #2 ............ 3 Figure 3. Commonly Used Life-Cycle Cost Phases ..................................................................... 11 Figure 4. Range and mean values for untreated shower water – All sites .................................... 48 Figure 5. Range, mean, and % reduction values for treated greywater - All sites ........................ 48 Figure 6. Turbidity of untreated greywater vs the turbidity of treated greywater at each site. ..... 49 Figure 7. Fecal coliform counts verses chlorine concentration at each site. ................................. 50 Figure 8. GWRS#1 Reliability. Fecal Coliforms, Chlorine Residual, Turbidity and BOD. ........ 52 Figure 9. Site 2 - Total Chlorine and Fecal Coliforms enumeration compared to HCG. ............. 54 Figure 10. Site 5 - Total Chlorine and Fecal Coliforms enumeration compared to HCG. ........... 54 Figure 11. GWRS#2 Reliability. Fecal Coliforms, Chlorine Residual, Turbidity, and BOD. ..... 55 Figure 12. Fecal Coliforms In Municipally Fed Toilets vs. Greywater Fed Toilets ..................... 60 Figure 13. Soundness and Reliability of GWRS #1 from users’ perspective. .............................. 64 Figure 14. Typical Average Municipal Water Prices in Canada and Around the World. ............ 70 Figure 15. Per Capita Household Water Use for Selected EU Members ..................................... 71 Figure 16. Water rates verses consumption .................................................................................. 72 Figure 17. Payback On Investment For Three Sites (Scenario 1) ................................................. 76 Figure 18. Payback On Investment For Two Sites (Scenario 2) ................................................... 77 Figure 19. Water Conserved per Dollar Spent. Comparison of Water Conservation Methods. ... 80 Figure 20. Users Perception of Water Savings ............................................................................. 82 Figure 21. Product lifecycle scheme ............................................................................................. 87 Figure 22. Transfer Mechanisms and User Interaction with GWRS. ........................................... 90 Figure 23. Satisfaction with GWRS.............................................................................................. 92 Figure 24. Site 3 (GWRS#1) - Emissions, Avoided Inputs, Net Emissions Increase................... 96 Figure 25. Process Diagram of Baseline System ........................................................................ 148 Figure 26. Process diagram of the GWRS with the Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants .. 148 ix 1. Introduction 1.1 Water Conservation and the City of Guelph Proper sanitation and clean sources of drinking water have enabled cities to grow larger and denser than ever before. However, at the same time these large populations are putting increased pressure on water resources. Further aggravating the problem is the inappropriate costing of water in Canada; per cubic meter water rates are among the lowest in the world. This has accordingly promoted wasteful design and consumption patterns (CEP, 2007). With water shortages occurring more frequently all over the world, cities, municipalities, and governments are beginning to re-evaluate how water resources are utilized (WWAP, 2009). For this reason, alternative water conservation techniques such as rainwater harvesting, wastewater reclamation, and greywater reuse have become more critical components to modern water resource planning. One water conservation method under investigation by the City of Guelph is greywater reuse. This practice is defined as reusing wastewater (excluding sewage or black water) for non-potable purposes before it leaves the home for the wastewater treatment plant. However, much is still unknown regarding the appropriateness of these technologies and their human and environmental impacts. Under the “Places to Grow” provincial mandate, the population in the Guelph area is expected to significantly increase in the coming years from 115,000 to around 180,000 by 2031 (CEP, 2007). It is essential that proper planning is done to ensure that the city’s infrastructure can accommodate this growth. The City of Guelph has prepared a progressive integrated community plan which sets goals to allow the addition of 20,000 homes while reducing per capita water usage (CEP, 2007). It is perceived by many Canadians that the water resources in this country are infinite (Schindler, 2006). There certainly is more water present in Canada per person than in many countries around the world, yet it is often in places where people do not live. As a result water has been considered abundant in Canada, while some communities experience water scarcity (Schindler, 2006). As mentioned previously, Canada has some of the lowest water costs in the world and 1