Disingenuous or Novel? An Examination of Apology Legislation in Canada By Graham Andrew Burch Barr A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Laws (LLM) Graduate Department of Law University of Toronto © Copyright by Graham Andrew Burch Barr (2009) Disingenuous or Novel? An Examination of Apology Legislation in Canada Master of Laws (LLM) (2009) Graham Andrew Burch Barr Graduate Department of Law University of Toronto This Thesis provides an analysis of Apology Legislation in Canada, more specifically focusing on its influence on Canadian Courts & Contracts of Insurance. Apology legislation, as an amendment to the Evidence Act of a province or a stand-alone piece of legislation, was created to restrict the admissibility of acts or words of remorse or benevolence given by one person to another. Apology Legislation in Canada is said to be a positive measure on the road to making the justice system more accessible, affordable and effective. This piece will explore the framework of Apology Legislation in several common law jurisdictions, leading to an examination of the socio-economic and legal benefits it is purported to confer. This Thesis will also consider legal and policy changes that could help to alleviate the burden on the judicial system while contributing to the creation of a safer and more sustainable health care system in Canada. ii Acknowledgments The completion of this Thesis would not have been possible without the gracious support of the Canadian Institute of Health Research who I must thank for their academic and financial support. I would also like to thank my supervisor Dr. Trudo Lemmens for his insight and comments. Furthermore, I am most grateful for loving friends [Charlene Hawkins, Maria Mercedes Cavallo, Eva Linde, Gabriel Franco, Irma Santibanez, Frank Tedman, Ahmed Saleh, Ubaka Ogbogu, Ben Higham, Raul Iturralde, Patricia Ferreira, Colette Langlois, Shane Moffatt and Lucy Saunders] and family [Hon. M. Jeanne Burch and Gordon E. W. Barr Q.C.] who have supported me in this endeavour Thank you one and all. I would like to dedicate this Thesis to my grandmother, Marion Barr, who passed away in November, 2008. For you Nanni. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1 A. Historical Framework 6 (a) United States of America 6 (b) Australia 10 (c) Canada 12 B. Canadian Position Regarding Apologies 15 (a) How Canadian Courts Approached Apologies 16 (b) Impact of Apologies on Contracts of Insurance 21 C. Assumptions Concerning the Creation of Apology Legislation 24 (a) Economic Argument 25 a. Apologies and Legal Settlement: An Empirical Examination 27 b. Veterans Affairs Hospital in Lexington, Kentucky 29 (b) Criticisms 32 D. Apology Legislation and the Doctor-Patient Relationship 35 E. Recommendations 43 (a) Parallel Compensation System 44 F. Conclusion 46 Bibliography 47 iv DISINGENUOUS OR NOVEL: AN EXAMINATION OF APOLOGY LEGISLATION IN CANADA INTRODUCTION After millennia of trial and error, medicine remains an inexact if not impossible science, one that we as humans continue to do battle with in order to extend our longevity and that of future generations. Health Care Providers (“HCPs”) are at the front line, working diligently to provide treatment to the needy, battling time and disease, all the while acknowledging that at best all medicine represents is the vain attempt at prolonging the inevitable. It is within this complex world that one finds the most delicate of relationships. The bond between doctor and patient, a union of trust, is a unique and challenging connection, fraught with unevenness. Since the early 20th century a new dilemma has taken hold, as HCPs have begun to lose control over self‐regulation and discipline. The rise of the compensation culture, a disadvantage for HCPs, has allowed patients to take action in the event of adverse medical outcomes. Insurance and insurance premiums have become a mandatory part of professional practice placing an added burden on practitioners. HCPs have had to adapt to the changing environment, both by placing greater emphasis on education, but also by changing the manner in which health care is delivered. However, not all changes to the health care systems have resulted in positive outcomes. While the imposition of a duty of care on HCPs has the purported benefit of increasing quality of care and patient safety, it has also increased the fear HCPs have of litigation.1 Fear within the medical community creates isolation, as HCPs are less likely to 1 Marlynn Wei, “Doctors, Apologies, and the Law: An Analysis and Critique of Apology Laws” (2007) Winter Journal of Health Law 134‐144 [Wei]. 1 2 admit and report errors for fear of losing either respect from peers or, worse yet, their licensure. A vicious cycle was born as the fear of litigation pushed HCPs into silence, which in turn compounded systematic and personal errors, resulting in the decrease of quality and safety for patients. Such practices continued unabated until the medico‐legal reformation began in the 1980’s. The Canadian government, working with both patient advocacy groups and medical regulatory bodies, interceded and began to take control over the health care system. Effort was rewarded by the implementation of numerous changes to the delivery of health care in Canada. Canadian Medical Association Guidelines were amended to reflect the need for mandatory disclosure of adverse medical outcomes.2 Organizations, such as the CPSI, were created for the enhancement of safety and quality in the Canadian Health Care System.3 However, despite the best intentions and actions of the government, a continued imbalance persisted between the insular medical community and the public. The result of unreported errors culminated in the release of the American Institute of Medicine’s report (“IOM Report”) in 1999 that found there to be between 44,000 and 98,000 preventable deaths per year in the United States, directly attributable to adverse medical outcomes.4 Although the IOM Report was bleak, it went on to convey 2 Canadian Medical Protective Agency: Annual Report 2007 at 6, online: <https://www.cmpa‐ acpm.ca/cmpapd04/docs/about_cmpa/annual_report/2007/com_numbers‐e.cfm>. 3 “The Canadian Patient Safety Institute [CPSI] was established in 2003 as an independent not‐for‐profit corporation, operating collaboratively with health professionals and organizations, regulatory bodies and governments to build and advance a safer healthcare system for Canadians. CPSI performs a coordinating and leadership role across health sectors and systems, promotes leading practices and raises awareness with stakeholders, patients and the general public about patient safety.” From the CPSI website. Accessed on August 23, 2009. < http://www.patientsafetyinstitute.ca/English/Pages/default.aspx> 4 Institute of Medicine. To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System. 1 (1999). [IOM Report]. 2 3 that ‘more than ninety percent of these deaths are the result of failed systems and procedures, not negligence of physicians’.5 While the report centres on the American Health Care System it is apt to infer that similar results would be found in an analysis of the Canadian Health Care System. The IOM Report was a watershed for the medico‐legal community. Understanding the human cost helped to put into perspective the economic and social costs of adverse medical outcomes. Billions of lost dollars, both from litigation and loss of taxable income, now had a source as governments raced to find ways to staunch the flow. For the victims of adverse medical outcomes the desire for compensation, for both physical and mental anguish, could only be sought through dispute resolution. The only manner in which victims could come to understand what had happened was to either go through the courts or lengthy settlement proceedings. More importantly, some victims sought not monetary compensation, but also apologies or an admission of fault from HCPs with a promise that future adverse medical outcomes would be prevented through such disclosure.6 Indeed, some victims have found that the apology ‘was the most valuable part of settlement’.7 The problem, however, lies with the HCPs who are reticent and, together with the Canadian legal community, discourage apology.8 In the medico‐legal world apologies are seen as admissions of fault, with the potential to form a basis of legal liability. While some adverse 5 Hillary Rodham Clinton and Barack Obama, “Making Patient Safety the Centerpiece of Medical Liability Reform” (2006) 354:21 The New England Journal of Medicine 2205 [Clinton & Obama]. 6Ashley A. Davenport, “Forgive and Forget: Recognition of Error and Use of Apology as Preemptive Steps to ADR or Litigation in Medical Malpractice Cases” (2006) Pepp. Disp. Resol. L.J. 6, 82 [Davenport]. 7Daniel W. Shuman, “The Role of Apology in Tort Law” (2000) Judicature. 83, 180 [Shuman]. 8 J K Robbennolt, “Apologies and Legal Settlement: an empirical examination” (2003) 102 Michigan Law Review 460 [Robbennolt, “Apologies and Legal Settlement”]. 3 4 medical errors are the direct result of negligence, HCPs do not want to be held liable in cases where the errors occurred because of systematic deficiencies. The Canadian government, in an attempt to encourage apologies, has pursued legislative reforms intended to remove the burdens of disclosure. The provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Alberta and Ontario have all enacted legislative provisions intended to protect individuals in civil matters by allowing people to apologize openly for tortious acts.9 Apology Legislation represents an opportunity to strengthen a patient’s right to information by giving HCPs the opportunity to disclose medical error without fear of liability. Such an attempt could keep the channels of communication between doctor‐ patient open. Apology Legislation, as an amendment to the Evidence Act or a stand‐alone piece of legislation, was created to restrict the admissibility of acts or words of remorse or benevolence given by one person to another.10 The legislation protects statements that admit liability made during the course of an apology and also protects individuals from voiding contracts of insurance.11 As Canadian provinces draft and enact their own versions it is important to undertake an analysis of Apology Legislation’s strengths and weaknesses. Only through such an examination can the goals of Apology Legislation be realized and its potential properly evaluated. This Thesis discusses how Apology Legislation may become an instrument for mitigating the economic impact on medical malpractice claims while 9 See examples, infra note 39. 10 For the purposes of this Thesis the focus will be centred on Health Care Providers and the bodies associated within that professional sphere. 11 See infra Part B. 4 5 simultaneously assisting in the redevelopment of the doctor‐patient relationship. Part II develops the legal genesis of the creation of Apology Legislation by looking at the historical progression of similar reforms in the United States of America and Australia. Part III considers the Canadian position with regard to apologies and comments on the potential effect Apology Legislation will have on both the Canadian Courts and contracts of insurance. Part IV delves into the assumptions made underlying the creation of Apology Legislation, namely that there is a significant economic advantage to implementing such reforms while commenting on empirical studies conducted in other jurisdictions. Part V examines the effect Apology Legislation may have on the Doctor‐Patient relationship by looking at the barriers to full disclosure from HCPs and how legal reform may help reduce such obstructions. The final section provides a personal view on legal reform in the area of medical malpractice. Part VI discusses alternative reforms within the current structure of the Canadian Health and Tort Systems, whilst respecting the need to maintain the high quality of Health Care delivery in Canada. 5 6 A. HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK (a) United States of America Apology Legislation is relatively new in Canada but has a long history in other common law jurisdictions, specifically the United States of America. The idea was born when the state legislature of Massachusetts, in 1986, enacted ‘Safe Harbour’ provisions, allowing persons to apologize to complainants in tortious claims. Massachusetts General Laws ch. 233, Section 23D provides, “Statements, writings or benevolent gestures expressing sympathy or a general sense of benevolence relating to the pain, suffering or death or a person involved in an accident and made to such person or to the family of such person shall be inadmissible as evidence of an admission of liability in a civil action.”12 The Apology Law was heralded as a great leap forward, however, it was not without its weakness. The law remained silent on expressions that could contain admissions of fault. The spirit of the legislation was contagious and was picked up by other states that saw the legislative potential the Massachusetts legislation created. Texas was next to create Apology Legislation and went further than Massachusetts when it modified the language and removed any ambiguity concerning admissions of fault. The Texas model was largely similar to that of Massachusetts but differed by providing that “a communication, including an excited utterance… which also includes a statement or statements concerning negligence or culpable conduct pertaining to an accident or event, is admissible to prove liability[.].”13 The Texas model, representing the genesis of the protection of ‘partial apologies’, has been adopted by thirty‐five states, including Florida and California, making 12 Massachusetts General Laws tit 2 ch 233, §23D (2007) 13 Texas Civ Prac and Rem Code Ann §18.061 (1999) 6
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