small exhibition on Max's life and work, provided a fitting memorial to a man of wide including family photographs and delightful cultural interests and huge scientific achieve- letters from Max to his grandchildren, ments, whose presence in the Laboratory and ' complemented the earlier talks. the College is greatly missed. The following day a Memorial Symposium R.A. Crowther heard scientific presentations from colleagues and collaborators of Max, most of whom, Dr Crowther is a Supernumerary Fellow and besides describing their own current work, Joint Head of the Structural Studies Division included a tribute to his scientific or personal at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in influence on their careers. The meetings Camb ridge. A PETREAN ON EVEREST 195 1-53 I. The Abode of Snow Lying on the border between Tibet and Nepal, for centuries two of the most politically inaccessible countries, Mount Everest or Chomolungrna as it 1s called by the Tibetans is surrounded by four peaks of over 26,500 feet in a tangled reglon of peaks, passes, glac~ers and valleys. Its exploration and ascent was more complex than that of any other peak for one fundamental reason, because at 29,028 feet it is 'I tho~~snntede t higher and climbers attempting the summlt are living 'beyond their means'. Although d~scovereda s the world's high- est peak by rhe Survey of Ind~af ollowing routlnc surveys of the Himalay.a . In the mid- . nineteenth century from the plains of India a hundred miles to the south, an on the ground identification had to wait until Henry Wood of the Survey identified it from the south in Nepal in 1903, and in 1904 from Kampa Dzong in Tibet during the Younghusband mission to L,hasa. Further confirmation came during this mission when no other peak of a The North .Yitir of t:r,rresl /qr Horurll'ri ~onrrrcjrll. similar altitude was found by a Survey Party, C1.B.E. F.R.(:.S. HC LV~1S1 <:,lialt 111trf OI~tl >1~9 22 and which included Wood, that travelled in South 1924 Ellcrest Expeditions (see p. 6.T). Tibet, north of the Himalaya, along the Tsangpo Valley to Gartok in West Tibet. by the Survey of India Party, one of whose It was nearly twenty years before the first members, E.O. Wheeler, found the easiest Reconnaissance Party was given permission route on the North side after the failure of by the Tibetan Government to approach the the mountaineers, including Mallory, to do mountain from the north. The first three so. So efficient was this group that by the attempts in 192 1,1922 and 1924 broke much time the main party left Calcutta for the U.K. new ground topographically and medically. a preliminary map of the north side of the In 192 1 extensive mapping was completed mountain was completed. The purpose of the 1922 and 1924 parties was simple -to climb Everest. The use of supplementary oxygen was gone illto in some detail and decompression chamber stud- ies carried out at Oxford. In 1875 on a well-documented balloon ascent by three Italians, not using supplemen- tary oxygen, two had died at 28,000 feet, whilst the third had survived by venting hydro- een and descending. However. " two ~ ~ i ~ ~i ~ L., ~, ~ ~ krott~i tI)e S)~I(I/I-II~~I~tSl~~ c~ri urtl) (0l1, srrr~i~rriii,s ~o~(thioi l. Llro~ts~r,W trstc~r~n , (:UJM.N II~IrS~C.c z-f~ll. Coxwell and Glaisher, during the same had ascended to a similar using oblique and vertical ~hotographs. altitude by balloon and had acclimatised to This was supplemented by exploratory these altitudes. In 1922 supple~nentary parties starting in 195 1 hy myself on the oxygen was used but there was no clear-cut Everest Reconnaissance and continued improvement in climbing rate over those through to 19.55 and this filled in the blanks using long term acclimatisation. However, on the southern side. Later the first detailed in one party the use of supplementary map of both the Tibetan and Nepalese side oxygen prevented hypothermia and was life of the Everest Region was completed in saving. 196 1 by G.S. Holland of the R.G.S. Revised In 1924 Norton and Somervell reached a in 1975 this map remains the gold standard height of 28,000 feet relying on acclimatisa- map of the area. The irony of the vital Milne- tion alone but Mallory and Irvine using Hinks Map is that by the time Nepal was ~upplementnor~xy gen were lost on the upper opened to mountaineers it had heen forgot- slopes. M;lllory's body at a lower level was ten and 'lost' by the R.G.S. found in 1999 by an American party - with evidencc he had fallen. The four expeditions 11. A Positive Outlook 1951-1952 of the 1930s failed to get any higher, then After two years completing the normal three- World War 11 interrupted all attempts. year Tripos in tlle basic Natural Sciences at Following tlic <;hinese takeover in Tihet no Peterhouse I did my clinical training at The further attempts were allowed from the I,ondon Hospital in Whitechapel. House north. Rut in 1949 for the first time in history Officer posts in the East End were followed Nepal ;~llowedE uropeans into her country. by two years' National Service from 1951 to Because access to the Everest Region on 19.52 in the R.A.M.C., first at the Royal the southcrn Nepalese side had been negli- Herbert Hospital, Woolwich, and later under ~ihlem, apping had been sparse, relying on attachment to the Brigade of Guards. the original I'undit (secret native explorers As one ot the leading climbers in the U.K. of the Survey ot India) Surveys of tlie mid- - all of 11s amateurs in that era - I very natu- nlnetccnth century. It was not until 1 933 rally had n great interest in climbing Everest. that a modern map of thc Nepalcse side was In fact 1 was introduced to climbing when I drawn following an aerial survey. It was an was sixteen by E.G.H. Kempson, a mathe- extraordinarily &tailed map made by A.R. matical Wrangler and Housemaster at Hinks, 11i:ithematical cartographer, and Marlborough, who had been on the 1935 and il M.1). Milne, (lliief Draughtsman, both of 1936 Everest Expeditions. There were two the Royal Geographical Society (R.G.S.), obvious obstacles: first a new route from Nepal had to be found and the second was medical. This was evidenced by the total fail- ure of each expedition mounted by the Himalayan Committee (drawn from the Alpine Club and the R.G.S.) to solve the medical and physiological problem of 'the last thousand feet'. The technical climbing difficulties on the northern route were not gcat being roughly equivalent to the normal route on Mont Blanc, first ascended in 1786. In early 1951, to find a route from the South, 1 searched the dank, filthy and uncat- alogued archives of the R.G.S., examining each photo of the three to four thousand taken on the pre-World-War-I1 expeditions. After several weeks I was no further forward since all the photos were taken from Tibet. Towards the end of my marathon sessions I came across two buff unmarked envelopes. Inside were photographs taken on covert flights over Everest in the hte 194Qs. Though many were wrongly labelled as being of Makalu, a peak over 26,500 feet high thirty miles to the east of Everest, it was quite obvi- we continued our preparation regardless. We ous that a reasonably easy route existed to the were certain that somehow we would be able summit from Nepal via the Western Cwm, to carry out a reconnaissance and if this Lhotse Face, South Cot and South East Ridge, confirmed a viable route from Nepal a fully once the formidable Ice Fall guarding the equipped attempt on Everest would follow entrance to the Western Cwm had been over- swiftly. come, So I turned my attention to the Map However, it was clear to me and Tom Room. The staff were aware of the existence Bourdillon that unless the medical and phys- of the Milne-Hinks map, but could not find iological problems were identified and solved it and at that time there was only one copy - and adequate supplementary oxygen was known. 1 urged them on to make a thorough only one part of the solution - any hope of search; and eventually it was unearthed. reaching the summit might be seriously Th~ms apconfirmed the route shown by the compromised yet again. With this in mind, aerial photographs. Armed with this infor- and now having experience of the intransi- mation I got in touch with tulo friends, B~ll gence of the Himalayan Committee, I decided Murray, a leading Scottish climber, and Tom to address the medical details in tondon Bourdillon, a leading British climber; and we while Bill Murray concentrated on the organ- asked the Himalayan Committee to back a isation of the expedition in Scotland. reconnaissance. To my fury they refused and The Royal Society with their record of we soon ftrund out why. Unknown to us in high-altitude investigation into the oxygen the winter of 1950, H.W. Tilrnan, the leader transport system associated with Joseph of the 1938 Everest F,xpedition and a highly Barcroft of Cambridge and others in the experienced Himalayan explorer, had visited 1920's and 1931)'s were likely to be inter- Khumbu and was adamant that no route ested. Therefore 1 approached Russel Brain existed. 'Impossible' was his verdict. [t was (President of the Royal College of Physicians obvious to US, if not to the Alpine Club and and an F.R.S.) to whom 1 had been a House the R.G.S., that he was totally mistaken and Physician for a short period. He advised me contacted me and I arranged a meeting with Dr Griffith Pugh of the newly formed (late in 1950) Division of Human Physiology of the M.R.C. at Hampstead. During World War I1 Pugh had worked on the problems of cold and high altitude at the Mountain Warfare School at the Cedars of Lebanon in tlie Middle East. T~LIS at the M.R.C. he unofficially conducted the primary research into all the high-altitude prohlerns t-l,c,rcst I Y iI : A,lcrrrhc,rs of tl~cK ~~~III/LI/~S'S~'IrrItrIy~th~ c- ~~r~or r~rcoisf ' and various forlns of cold t / )H~r /t/j/~~: I~I/ILd~l S~S'L~I ~III~II/[~kI;~.. k :. .~/I//)~M(I.IPI. ,\ v[ll'(Lfr'., M. injury including hypotherlllia and M~trrny.T I). ~ ~ r r r ~ ~ ~ l l ~ ~ r ~ . frostbite. Also strokes, chest conditions, gross 'discovered' in 1,ondon and, although the Ice dehydration leading to chronic fatigue, hallu- Fall proved extremely dangerous, we knew a cinations, personality disorders and severe fully equipped party would overcome it. We mental and physical deterioration and an then carried out a number of explor~itor~ appreciable mortality rate - a daunting work- journeys, when accompanying Shipton I load. All these conditions had been found in developed an interest in this side of moiui- young nien who were fit at sea level when they taineering, we returned to Kathmandu. I was were exposed to high altitude. 'Sick man incandescent with rage to find the Swiss had clirnhing in a dream' (the words of the obtained permission to attempt Everest in Himalayan Explorer of the thirties, Eric 1952. But this turned out to our advantage. Shipton) perfectly described their condition Pugh now had time to carry out field trials and hencc tlie repeated failures to reach the and in 1952 a British party led again by summit of Evcrest. Shipton went to the Himalaya with the Rcalising that we were intent on our recon- douhle aini of verifying his laboratory work naissance and Eric Shipton, recently returned and climbing Cho Oyu, a peak of 26,500 feet from Kunming, had agreed to join us as the twenty miles west of Everest. The Army nolninstccl Icadel; the Himalayan Committee decided I should not continue my National changed tlicir mind and backed us and The Service in Himalaya so I did not go. Shipton T;nlcls g;ivc us sollie financial support was to test a larger team of high altitude although wc each paid our own way to some clirnbcrs with a view to tackling Everest in extent. 7'his was the first privately organised 1953. The science was an unqualified success, Everest Expedition and it could he said the but failure to clinih Cho Oyu was mainly Himalayan Committee jumped on our band- political in that tlie only viable route was wagon. Shipton had turned down many found to he in Tibet and Shipton was not English climhcrs who wanted to join us hut prepared to 'trespass' - quite reasonably but ~llvitcdt wo Ncw Zealanders of ;I party of four to the disappointment of some. Then Shipton who wcrc nlrcady climhing in the Hirn;ilaya decided not to return immediately but carry to makc 11s to a party of six. One of them out some further exploratory work. This was 1117 was F.tl Hillary. a terrible mistake. Following the Swiss failure 'fhis was an extremely happy and fruitful it was felt he should have returned immedi- expedition. It confirmed the route 1 had ately to start organising tor 1953. Following our success in 1953, Sir Edwin Herbert (Lord insistence on the 'supplementary oxygen' Tangley) created The Mount Everest option in 1953. Foundation to replace the archaic Himalayan The final medical solutions included Committee. increasing the rate of supplementary oxygen uptake to four litres per minute rather than nI. Science and Success two litres per minute to boost rate of ascent However, by the time Hunt replaced Shipton and to increase heat production; the use of in late Octoher/November 1952 all the sleeping oxygen to combat altitude deterio- fundamental problems of the last 1000 feet ration; the necessity of drinking two to three lace had been solved, the equipment was in litres of fluid every day to combat dehydra- and Griff Pugh was appointed Expedition tion and adequate food intake despite a Physiologist. Others of like mind - Tom natural disinclination to maintain both the Bourdillon, Charles Evans, and myself - latter requirements. Adequate clothing and perfectly understood the disciplines required the use of down jackets was a vast bonus over to ensure success. Barring acts of God such as the multiple layers of sweaters previously avalanche and extreme weather we should used. Because the Nepalese approach did not prevail. allow for adequate acclimatisation, as did the Our advantageous position had a long northern Tibetan route, which crossed the history not only in mountaineering but also plateau at 16-17,000 ft, it was decided very in understanding the transport system of early on by Pugh that an acclimatisation oxygen in the body, the development of period to get mountaineers fit was necessary dnaesthesia and the development of cardiac before any attempt on the Ice Fall. and lung surgery. Although supplementary At the same time in 1952a very strong, well oxygen had been used sporadically on most acclimatised and well organised Swiss party Everest expeditions, including the failed composed mainly of climbers belonging to a Swiss attempt in 1952. it did not appear to Geneva Club, L'Androsace, made their provide the necessary improvement in perfor- attempt on Everest. Being able to climb in mance, although knowledgeable high-alti- both Winter and Summer on peaks up to tilde physiologists like Joseph Barcroft of 16,000 feet, many being professional guides Ci~mhridgew ere adamant that it should be and so more experienced and better climbers used tollowing the Italian balloon tragedy in than any party of British climbers, neverthe- 187.5. Bryan Mathews, also Professor of less failed to summit because 'they got the Physirilogv at Cambridge, had shown that the science wrong'. Their oxygen sets did not greatly increased respiration at altitude provide adequate flow rates and lack of would lead to considerable heat loss from the adequate fluid intake resulting in excessive lungs and contribute to the high incidence of dehydration caused undue fatigue. Despite cold iniury. this Lambert and Tenzing got to within 500 Additional information came from North feet of the summit. America, where in 1946 C.S. Houstan and So it was that in May 1953 we were ~oised R.L. Riley had carried out a decompression after thirty years of failure and it was to be chamber experiment at Pensacola Naval Air another twenty-five years before Everest was Rase, Florida. Volunteers had, after thirty climbed without supplementary oxygen. The days acclimatisation, managed to reach the first summit attempt by R.C.E vans and T.D. 'summit of Everest' hut whether possible on Bourdillon relied on the use of closed circuit the ground given all the extra climatic and oxygen sets in which low flow rates of oxygen other stresses. which needed a higher oxygen are used and then exhaled carbon dioxide is intake, was not proven. This experiment, absorbed in a soda lime cannister and the together with the inability of pre-War oxygen re-cycled - hence the term closed climbers to ascend fast enough relying on circuit. Its advantages are that the climber is acclimatisation alone resulted in the M.R.C.'s at sea level in the depths of his lungs and he can climb at sea level rates. But the set is heavy Step. Luckily between the rock and the snow and if it breaks down the climber at one a gap had opened up which allowed them to moment at 'sea level' is suddenly exposed to chimney up to the final ridge. They reached the altitude at which he is climbing with possi- the summit, a snow cap, at 11.30 a.m. and ble loss of consciousness. The open circuit they removed their oxygen masks for a short used by the support parties and Hillary and period, knowing it was safe from the 1946 Tenzing was simpler, rugged and less likely to American work. Photos were taken down all break down. Oxygen at varying flow rates the main ridges, the most poignant view being which determines the altitude in the depths of of tlie North Col from which so many expe- the lungs is inhaled and exhaled air is vented ditions had tried and failed to reach the to the atn~osphere. summit. All the surrounding peaks were Hunt's plan was faulty. He decided the first shrunk and flattened being 1000 feet beneath attempt was to climb to the summit frorn the them. They left at 1 1.45 a.m. after replacing South Col (26,000 feet), an ascent of 3,000 their masks, and reached the South Col in the feet and descend the same day. In the opinion early evening. Hillary's first laconic words to of many including n~yself as expedition Lowe, his New Zealand climbing partner, doctor this was too risky given that the closed who met them on the Col were 'we knocked circuit sets were not foolproof and a high the bastard off'. camp at 28,000 feet was to he provided in any event for the second assault party of Hillary 1V. The Legacy of Everest and Tenzing. A high camp should have been The legacy of Everest is huge. All the Wo~.ld's available for tlie first attempt on safety highest peaks have now hecn repeatedly grounds and to give then1 optimutn condi- climhed by their original and more difficult tlons. routes, and the esplor:ltion ot the mount,iin Hunt, however, remained intransigent and ranges of Asia has incre;~sedw, hilst 111;ipping refused to chanse his mind -not tlie first time has Iwcome more sophisticated. The devel- that his ~nouutnineeringj udgement was ques- opment of High illtiri~dc Medicine and tionable. the event Evans and Bourdillon 111 reached tl~eS outh Summit (28,750 feet) but, because thcir sets malfunctioned, decided to go no further. On return to the South Col Rourdillon hecame semi-conscious hecause his set suddenly failed. If they had heen provided with a high camp 1 believe they could linvc succeeded. Thc 5cc.ond party of Hillary and Tenzing were ~hlteo use the High Camp and it denion- strated how tit they were; and their suplxwt gro~ll'o f I .owe, Gregory and Ang Ninia using the open circuit sets, were each able to climb to 2g,fl()() feet c.nrrying up to 60 Ihs. On night of May 28th 195.3 a tcliipcr- nturc of -27"(:w as recorded, much tlie same as that on the South (:(>I. After a sleepless night spcnt ~ncltings now for water ;~ndus ilig L. ~lecpillgo uygcn intermittently, Hillary arid Tenzing rcC~clictdh e Soi~thS t~mmita t Y a.m. 3- From hcrc thr ninin obstacle between them +- and thc \r~mmitw ;is a rock step twenty to ~ ~ ~ ~10~ $ Jc: rI1~/?o~to~s [It~ CtIrIo t11 ~IJCS IIIIIIIII~I ookIr~g tllirry tier high now known at the Hillary cioror~t I~cr,r orth, TIhc~t[~rsrit.i r to the North (:I)/. Pliysiologv as a specialty is increasingly and climb at altitude and has helped us all in taught in Universities in North and South our understanding of man and the natural America and China and the fit young world. climber at altitude is also a model for those ;~tse a level with chronic heart and lung Michael Ward, C.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.S. disei~sew hose oxygen transport system is (m.1 943) compromised. In 1978 blessner and Habeler climbed Mr Ward is Emeritus Consultant Surgeon to E,verest trom the south without supplemen- the Crty and East London Area Health tary oxygen. A teat made possible by inten- Authorrty (Teachrng). He zuas a Consultant sive training, great athletic ability and Sltrgeon from 1964 to 1993 and a Lecturer supreme efticiency of technique. A Few years rn Clirzical Surgery at the London Hospital I,~terh lessner alone repeated this feat from Mcdrcal College from 1975 to 1993. He the North. The fittest and best mountaineers has published extensively on high-altitude tvill continue to take their sport to extreme medicine and mountaineering; and hrs limits ~~nirnuginnhline 195.3. Hut the main latest book has ptst appeared: Everest: A legacy of Everest extends beyond moun- Thousand Years of Explorat~on (Ernest t,~ineering,f or the kncnvledge needed to make Press: Glasgow, 2003). Copres can be ordered, the hr\r <i\ientI i~ts.~ p,indeclv astly and bene- post frce, only from the Ernest Press, 17 titrd thc I i0 n~~llioplei ople who live above Carlcton Ilrrve, Glasgotu, G46 6AQ (www. IO.OOO tcct. prc,tt.cted those nrho travel, ski crncst-prcss.co.uk). /*? i[,t .rrra>t ^frtrr!t r. ~CII('f kw<, z/t~rtl v*f irst I~ccc,~11~1, !h l,zl. _7r>t/~f reif &!:f: S\irrycy; I?x ).. C;rcyprr.i: t kt .F. l'rlId~s . ti.?..R LJ!~~I..D . R~xrr~tffltrrrrt)t..1 '. tf.Yhrct, l.Y'.C:. 1 rrtcBc., I'rrr;trrr Fir,rgcf> Ff,f.t ffrt~f,I ;..f! H~ltlttxyC :.Cr. tkJ?8ff, R-(: ). c:nrr, 1 X,trcu 7t'k~;f~l&T f?. ~I~JJ~mTFcIi nr~rfrp' if,r.r~~~s.